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On Protecting Children From Speech

Citation: Etzioni, Amitai. “On Protecting Children from Speech.” Chicago-Kent Law Review. 2004: 3-53. Google Scholar. 5 April 2009. http://lawreview.kentlaw.edu/articles/79-1/Etzioni.pdf

This article discusses and analyses the issues concerning children’s rights to free speech. According to the author, past court cases care more about how restricting access for children would inadvertently affect adults than they do about how there is a compelling state interest to protect children from harmful speech. To remedy this, Etzoini thinks Internet access for children and adults should become separate. Where it is not possible to make a separation, government regulation is needed, because voluntary measures, such as parents choosing to purchase filtering softwares, are generally ineffective. A review of research studies concludes children can be harmed by viewing objectionable media content, although this has been more definitely proven for violent content than for pornography. Etzoini also says that as children get older, they should have greater free speech rights, and should have their content restricted less.

The article provides a counterargument to some of the other documents published concerning how children can be protected from harmful content on the Internet. The Supreme Court cases concerning section 223 of the CDA and COPA were struck down in part because it was believed that there was truly no way for to restrict content for children without also inadvertently restricting it for adults. Etzioni, however, believes there may be ways to separate Internet access based on age. Additionally, this article differs from the arguments made by Thierer, because it favors governmental regulation of content over self-regulation. Etizoni’s reason for the ineffectiveness of voluntary regulation does however relate to a concept Thierer discusses – that of self efficacy. If people’s motivation to filter the Internet content of minors, self-regulation could potentially work. The problem right now is that efficacy is too low for people to want to take an initiative and regulate content.

Criminal Justice Abstracts

PsycINFO

NY Times Jan 27 1974_They wait hours--to be shocked

Klemesrud, Judy.  "They wait hours--to be shocked."  New York Times on the Web  27 Jan 1974.  
     University of Pennsylvania Library, Philadelphia 9 May 2008.  
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This is a NY Times article written about a month after The Exorcist was released in theatres. Klemesrud stood in a massively long line, interviewing ticketholders and employees at Manhattan’s Cinema I complex. She found out that previous moviegoers had not only vomited, but also hurriedly left, fainted, screamed, endured heart attacks—and one even reportedly had a miscarriage due to the horrific scenes.

Many people waited for up to twelve hours to be able to see how the impossible would be represented on screen. The crowds wanted to see flying objects, spinning heads, levitation, and not to mention the morbid scenes capturing blood, vomit, guts, and gore. Several fans wondered if parts of the book would actually be represented in the film—such as the taboo masturbation-with-the-cross incident and gratuitous language use, among other possibilities.

Some of the interviewees were seeing the movie for the third or fourth time. In fact, one reported feeling “contaminated” when they left the theatre, unable to get rid of the images and feelings aroused during previous views. Even though he had been having terrifying dreams ever since, he still wanted to see it again because of its extreme shock factor.

People leaving the theatre commented on how accurate the film was in comparison to the book, and remarked how “there’s nothing else like it”. Klemesrud goes on to quote a Chicago newspaper, which reported a psychiatric hospital admitting six people who had seen the film.

In considering this historical report, The Exorcist seems to have realistically transmitted a sense of fear and threat; so much so that it managed to provoke all of these reactions and predicaments among its viewers. It can be inferred that the cinematic techniques employed throughout the film played a large role in bringing about these truly terrifying sentiments. Had these special effects not been believable and successful in capturing people’s greatest fears, the film would not have been enjoying so much box office prosperity.

The Graveyard of Dreams: A Study of Nathanael West's Last Novel, 'The Day of the Locust'

Pisk, George M. "The Graveyard of Dreams: A Study of Nathanael West's Last Novel, ‘The Day of the Locust.’" The South Central Bulletin. Vol. 27, No. 4 (Winter 1967), pp 64-72. JSTOR. 9 Apr. 2008 < http://www.jstor.org/stable/3188923>.

This article begins with biographical details of West’s life that focus on him as a struggling writer. However, 20^th Century Fox buys the rights to one of his novels and West follows it to Hollywood only to see it corrupted and adulterated. He remained in Hollywood, enjoyed financial security as a screenwriter, and was able to focus on writing novels for three months out of the year. Hollywood not only provided a backdrop for his writings, but also a wealth of subject matter. During his time in Hollywood, West wrote The Day of the Locust. The rest of the article delves into analysis of the characters and other devices used in the book. It discusses how four major characters represent four major categories of the shattered dreams of Hollywood, and how the minor character Claude Estee represents the emptiness inherent even in the realization of dreams. The article discusses the use of music to create a corrupt and sinister atmosphere, and finally delves into the artifice of the novel as represented by Faye and the Hollywood system.

This article provides key insights into how West came to write his novel. As a struggling East Coast writer, he was drawn to Hollywood with promises of financial security and success. It becomes apparent that Tod Hackett is very much a reflection of West in the novel. Both are Ivy-educated artists drawn to Hollywood and seek to capture the truth of the area with their respective art. The discussion of animal imagery is important as it lends important insight into the film adaptation of West’s novel. The scene in the film with Homer Simpson and the lizard make more sense in context of animal imagery from the book. As the article highlights the importance and magnificence of West’s compassion in the novel, it reveals an aspect of the film that is missing as compassion is highly lost for any of the characters save for Homer.

Arthur Penn's Bonnie and Clyde / edited by Lester D. Friedman.

Carr, Steven Alan. From "Fucking Cops!" to "Fucking Media!": Bonnie and Clyde for a Sixties America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000

Steven Alan Carr’s essay From Fucking Cops to Fucking Media: Bonnie and Clyde for a Sixties America focuses on the cultural changes leading to and coming from Bonnie and Clyde. The article begins by outlining recent politician Bob Dole’s public outcry against media and its violent tendencies that deface “family values” (70). However, Carr compares Bob Dole’s deviant media (rappers, Murphy Brown, Natural Born Killers, etc) to Bonnie and Clyde, arguing that media now doesn’t represent a “mainstreaming of deviancy” but more of a debasement of media itself.
Carr then moves from the present to Bonnie and Clyde’s era, the birth of the counterculture in the 60s. Carr reminds us of the civil turmoil and transformation America as whole was undergoing. Vietnam, the civil rights movement and police brutality all excited the public’s mistrust of the state and authority as a whole. The American film industry was also undergoing a transformation of its own at the time with the demise of the studio system and the production code and the rise of influential foreign films from movements such as the French New Wave.
The 60s saw the birth of the counterculture, young adults who considered themselves on the margins of society. Many of the most influential voices of the time, such as Allan Ginsberg, were arrested for protesting the government. The government, in turn, reacted by “spying” on hundreds of thousands of citizens in an attempt to crack down on civil unrest and dissatisfaction with their government. This attempt, however, only served to solidify the defining aspect of the counterculture: their hatred of authority and control.
Carr uses these historical examples of 60s culture to place Bonnie and Clyde as the most influential film to date, and as a turning point in American cinema and consumerism. The film reflected the feelings and idealizations of the counterculture through its glorification of two criminals fight against authority and societal norms. The film was immensely popular, but received heavy criticism from film critics and public opinion groups, eventually leading to its withdrawal from theatres within the U.S. This, just like the government’s attempt to control dissent through spying, only served to bring the film to further prominence as a cult icon of sorts. The film, however, did more than just reflect the turmoil of the times and gave birth to the consumerization of the counterculture. The film helped present the counterculture, mostly young adults and teenagers, as the target audience for a new genre of film tailored directly to their desires. Bonnie and Clyde allowed the marginal, outcasts of society (as they saw themselves) to achieve consumerist prominence in America.

Television Violence, Victimization, and Power.

Gerbner, George and Larry Gross. "Telvision Violence, Victimization, and Power." American Behavioral Scientist JUN 1980 705-716

The 1980 communications article Television Violence, Victimization and Power by Georger Gerbner and Larry Gross discusses the influence of violence in media on its viewers. The article studies television programs between 1967 and 1968 and catalogues their use of violence. The study shows that within those years, 80% of all primetime and weekend programs contain violence in some form. This clearly shows the prominence of media violence in this period and the concern of the public on this topic.
The essay states, “violence is the key to the rule of power” (708) and shows how mostly men and white characters use violence to capture their dominance. The research in the essay shows that heavy television viewing results in a fear of violence along with a misjudgment of the amount of violence around us. The essay concludes by saying that violence has become the easiest way for television creators to create drama due to censorship laws.
Although this essay has nothing to do with Bonnie and Clyde, the study on the consequences of violence through 1960s television is important in understanding the films plentiful use of violence. There was no doubt that violence was prominent in the 1960s with images of the Vietnam War and civil rights movements dominating the screens of the American people. Bonnie and Clyde took advantage of the American obsession with visual violence, but did so in a way that justified and glamorized violence. Although the effects that the essay claims appear from watching excessive television, Bonnie and Clyde appealed to an audience that was already overwhelmed with violence, and was eager to welcome the camp portrayal of murder and death. And the essay’s assertion that power arises from violence, Bonnie and Clyde is the supreme example because of the overwhelming pop culture influence that the original pair and film had on the cinema as a whole as well as the public’s expectations of violence and censorship.

Violence: The Strong and the Weak'

‘Violence: The Strong and the Weak’ Devin McKinney Film Quarterly, Vol. 46, No. 4 (Summer, 1993), pp. 16-22 Published by: University of California Press Jstor, 9 Apr. 2008

Devin McKinney’s article makes a striking and brave point about the true shock value of violence in cinema, and asks what aspects fully take hold of the viewer’s internal emotional investments, and what methods are only hackneyed formulas used to merely keep what’s left of the viewer’s attention? He divides all scenes of violence into two kinds: the strong and the weak. The strong can leave the viewer physically sick, burdened with dread and plagued with nightmares; the delicacy of the miraculous human form will be reduced to “God’s garbage”. He writes that weak violence has no weight of consequence: a death will result in a moment’s pause before the plot, characters, and viewers all carry on to never think of that person again. Scenes of weak violence can claim no partiality from the viewer toward any side of any equation. They are incapable of keeping the audience from remaining neutral to all characters out of apathy. Momentary reflexes might make a viewer flinch, cringe, or shake his head, but those miniscule sensations are fleeting, only aroused by the garnish of special effects or pleasing cinematography. As McKinney puts it, the violence is used to lure the average movie-goer into the theatre, but bears no promise that there will be anything for him to take out with him.

A film like Natural Born Killers is a play on these two categories. As a satirical commentary of overblown violence in media productions, it makes an absolute mockery of what McKinney would consider weak violence, painting every stroke of his argument into an actual cinematic demonstration. Everything is exaggerated – far beyond the typical exaggerations of Hollywood blockbusters. Blood that can be seeing flying in every silly action film spurts with extra vivacity; grimaces of unadulterated barbarianism are upgraded into hellish, psychedelic snarls reminiscent of cartoons; the victims are just worthless props in the way of full-throttle heroes, rampaging across the country in drug-fuelled elation; the cinematic candy that McKinney describes as “campy” (the occasional lover’s montage, or tête-à-tête at twilight offered as a mixer for the weak violence from the director) turns to punk-rock marriages on highway bridges, and ethereal drunken dances beneath stars, on top of cars in random fields.

But ultimately, director Oliver Stone pulls off the impossible: his caricature of weak violence becomes so aggressive, so over-the-top and shameless in its soulless murders that the violence does become strong. It reminds the viewer that while he sits there watching fake violence on screen, somewhere there is real violence going on, and it is worse than those fake-blood spurts and cliché wooden shouts of pain that make up the average Hollywood production’s depiction of physical cruelty. Stone lets you enjoy the carefree spree of the killers like it’s just another movie, but he brings the reminder back again and again of the cold true world outside, with disturbing scenes of child abuse, attempted rape, fuming psychopathic looks, and mobs and mobs of born-to-kill inmates, destined to jail for the rest of their lives, desperate for a chance to tear the warden apart just one time.

Is TV violence all that bad for kids?

Is TV violence all that bad for kids? The Age (Melbourne, Australia), March 5, 2005 Saturday, INSIGHT; Opinion; Pg. 9, 816 words, HUGH MACKAY LexisNexis Academic 9 Apr. 2008

This article is a response to a report from The Weekend Australian that asserts a child’s witnessing of violence in media will result in higher levels of aggression. Writer Hugh Mackay refers to a 1960’s American child-psychology experiment which consisted of observing the different ways children would play with a particular object after they watched different videos, ones that either showed children playing peacefully with that toy or children punching and kicking it. The findings were that those who watched a violent video would treat the toy violently, and those who watched the peaceful video would treat the toy peacefully. Mackay makes sure to point out that although the children would emulate the behavior, it has been concluded that the effects are only short-term, and that all long-term personalities remain virtually unchanged. Furthermore, he declares that the search for variables which might shed light on a child’s increased or decreased susceptibility toward emulating violence in the media result only in negligible data that cannot give any indication of why a particular child would be acting more or less violent than any other one. Mackay’s overall point is that although these experiments may show children in the act of emulating violence on television, all large-scale national crime statistics show that the introduction of television into the societies of decades past resulted in severe drops in crime, and that the age-group which watches the least amount of television today commits the highest amount of violent crime. In short, what a child views in movies or videogames has far less positive or negative impact on his personality than the benefits of extensive human interaction, or the dangers of lazy, television-filled inactivity.

This article is worth factoring into the discussion of Natural Born Killer’s potential effect on inspiring three young couples to committing separate violent murders in Europe and America, all after their viewing (and in one case, repeated viewing) of the 1994 film. Although accusations were made that the filmmakers and producers were responsible, hardly evidence has been found to support them. Mackay also says that at the time of his writing the article in 2005, the violent crime rate in America had been in steady decline for the last 10 years – which would mean the trend began in 1995, one year after Natural Born Killers was released. If violence in the media could truly influence people to emulate the brutality on screen, Natural Born Killers would surely qualify for those results, considering the rare intensity of bloodshed that is present throughout the whole movie. And considering it grossed 11 million dollars in the first weekend, and over 50 million dollars to date, enough people have seen the movie that we can say if there was a slight rise in a person’s aggressive tendencies after watching the movie, no matter how slight, the accumulation across the country would certainly be noticeable.

Gender, Copycat Violence part II

The relevance of this article has to do with the controversy surrounding Natural Born Killers, over what impacts a film of such incredible violence (coupled with its themes of glorifying such acts) can – and has – and will – have on the societies of its viewers. Boyle draws on three specific cases of murderous love-duos that occured after the films release. Edmonson-Darras, Rey-Maupin, and Herbert-Paindavoine were all young couples tried for committing horrendous murders as pairs, and all three couples admitted to having been influenced by Natural Born Killers, further adding to the intense question of how acts of brutality we see in the media are linked to real-world violence.

What's Natural about Killing? Gender, Copycat Violence and Natural Born Killers

“What’s Natural about Killing? Gender, Copycat Violence and Natural Born Killers” By: Boyle, Karen. Journal of Gender Studies, Nov2001, Vol. 10 Issue 3, p311-321, 11p; DOI: 10.1080/09589230120086511; EBESCO, 9 Apr. 2008

Karen Boyle argues that Natural Born Killers leaves a dangerous impression on society, which places male violence as something more natural than female violence, and perhaps even something to be expected, while female violence is somehow a reversal of a girl’s original nature, to be drawn from or manipulated upon that female’s innately more submissive personality. She compares Mickey, the male half of the murderous love-duo, to Mallory, the female half, and concludes that the different treatment given to the characters has a drastic on the viewer, even if the viewer doesn’t realize. She points to Mickey’s depiction as an emblem of pure, glorified brutality, a hero for fellow convicts, a star on primetime television. Mickey’s calm exterior and understated personal background leaves the viewer with the understanding he’s been a man of sheer violence his whole life; and that for man, violence is somehow hereditary, and that for man, violence is ultimately nothing more or less than normal.

Boyle contrasts Natural Born Killer’s depiction of Mickey with that of Mallory: as a sex-object, a young girl who carries out violence on others only as revenge for the abuse she received from her father during her upbringing, and is brought “into” this world by its original inhabitant, the male, citing the image of Mickey riding to her house on horseback, after having escaped from jail, to rescue her and take her away – but not before showing her how to kill her parents in cold blood. She also points to interviews given by director Oliver Stone and actor Woody Harrelson, in which the two men emphasis Harrelson’s own family history, specifically his father’s murderous past, which she says is proof of the intentional perpetuation of the film’s prejudiced ideas, (or at least a complete admission of having those sentiments themselves, even if they didn’t recognize it).

The article furthermore proposes that other critics’ lack of commentary on this aspect of the film is an indication of just how easily its viewers are willing to accept it as true, and therefore the contrasting depictions of Mickey and Mallory are consequently that much more dangerous. Boyle argues that to paint the female-murderer as a more intriguing, fragile, or more special specimen than the male-murderer can only cast confusion and blindness on society’s ability to sentence its criminals with adequately balanced judgment, and these imposed attitudes will hamper the cause of studying the true motives behind the mass-murderer, which shouldn’t be thought of as automatically in every male psyche, or inherently lacking and foreign to the female psyche, but rather an equally potential outcome for any human mind.

Reenactment, Fantasy, and the Paranoia of History: Oliver Stone's Docudramas

Marita Sturken History and Theory, Vol. 36, No. 4, Theme Issue 36: Producing the Past: Making Histories Inside and Outside the Academy (Dec., 1997), pp. 64-79

In this article, Marita Sturken discusses Oliver Stone’s popularity and bad name as a filmmaker, but defends Oliver Stone against his critics who lividly denounce the director’s credibility as an American cinematic historian, and maker of the legitimate docudrama. Stone’s 1986 Platoon was greeted with total acclaim. Sturken attributes this to the fact that Stone personally served in Vietnam, and therefore the public perceived his portrayal of his experiences as not only credible but deserved. Sturken implies that the American public felt better about themselves after seeing his movie because of his cinematic storytelling skills, which were so convincing that the viewers felt they themselves were present in the war, and somehow vindicated from any guilt of being lucky enough to stay out of it. However, Stone’s 1991 JFK, along with his1995 Nixon, garnered unbelievable amounts of anger and resentment, first for their unpatriotic messages, and secondly for what was, by many, perceived as a total distortion of truthful American history.

The article discusses the relationship between memory vs. history, and how the camera can affect both sides of the equation. The camera is a mechanism of recording truth, and yet at the same time it is a way of expressing one’s own perception of truth before passing it on. In this way, one’s memory of history can become history itself. Sturken believes Stone has earned the privilege of narrating the truth of 20^th Century America for its future generations in any way he wants, calling him the country’s “cultural messenger,” one which his people deserve, because of the incredible aestheticism of his films, his artistic audacity and determination to voice his own opinions. This article should be considered when thinking about Natural Born Killers for many reasons. Firstly, Natural Born Killers is a piece about violence, and it should be remembered that the director was himself engulfed in an environment of devastating war, where horrific images (real ones) were around him at all times. That vastly important part of the director’s identity should not be forgotten.

Secondly, Sturken points out that Stone considers himself both a “cinematic-historian” and “just a storyteller.” The fact that Stone can see himself in such different ways at the same time sheds light on how he can create a very direct commentary about violence in the media without having to state specific opinions, or provide worthy morals to his story, or suggest solutions to society’s problems, or cite direct scientific or sociological sources to backup whatever he’s saying. The article focuses on Stone’s ability to manipulate images in order to retell things his own way. About JFK, Oliver Stone said, “I defend what I’m doing as something between entertainment and fact.” Natural Born Killers is just that, a cinematic masterpiece between commentary and entertainment. But, also, the subject of the commentary is that as well: the viewer finds himself focused on American primetime news, the sensationalized accounts written for the blood-thirsty news-watcher that lie somewhere between entertainment and fact.

Girls with Guns: Narrating the Experience of War

Girls with Guns: Narrating the Experience of War of Frelimo's "Female Detachment" Harry G. West Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 73, No. 4, Youth and the Social Imagination in Africa, Part 2 (Oct., 2000), pp. 180-194 Published by: The George Washington University Institute for Ethnographic Research

West’s article about Female Detachments fighting for Mozambique’s independence from Portuguese colonialism (a war that lasted from the late-70’s to the mid-90’s) sheds light on differing psychological states of those who lead lives of violence in situations as extreme as risking one’s own life to kill others.

West himself admits he had expected to hear or observe that the women and children who lived through these ages of dramatic social changes (which were results from the consequences of colonial conquest, anti-colonial insurgency and post independent governance) would be permanently scarred from the trauma of war. This was not the case. The Female Detachments he met were proud of their service, never claiming to have ever felt scarred or vulnerable. Among the male militias, the women were not quite equal to the male soldiers, but they reported feeling empowered by the men when they were given space to carry out their own attacks. The women also claimed it felt important to participate in the war rather than having to stay trapped in their homes carrying out agricultural work.

These observations have a lot of resemblances to Mallory’s character from Natural Born Killers. West attributes the Female Detachments’ mental strength in terms of rising above trauma and suffering to their ideology and beliefs, which relates to Mallory’s ability to carry out her actions under the shade of Mickey’s philosophical indifference to death and murder. Following that relationship, the organization which the Female Detachments fought for, FRELIMO, was a forceful and dangerous group which might have been viewed as the stronger counterpart of the two genders’ militias (if they were closer aligned). As West writes of the Female Detachments, “Respect for and fear of FRELIMO were inseparable … they had no option but to comply with their ‘requests.” And after completing training, their loyalty would always be tested by FRELIMO, who would compel them to certain dangerous missions. Although Mallory is happy to carry out her side of the murders, perhaps she is much more inclined to do when she sees how much it pleases Mickey. Another similarity between Mallory and the Female Detachments is drawn from West’s account of interviewing one of the soldiers with a tape recorder: he never needed to ask a second question, the interviewee was so relieved to be telling her whole story that she never stopped. The idea of telling one’s story, and to have one’s own life of danger and violence be the focus of an interview, is one of the central themes we see in Natural Born Killers.

Media Violence: Is There a Case for Causality?

"Media Violence: Is There a Case for Causality?" The American behavioral scientist [0002-7642] 51.8 (2008). 1061-.

The Good-bad and Bad-good in Movies: Bonnie and Clyde and In Cold Blood By Robert Steele

Natural Born Killers

Timothy P. Rouse “Natural Born Killers” Teaching Sociology, Vol. 23, No. 4, (Oct., 1995), pp. 433-434 American Sociological Association Jstor 9 Apr. 2008

Timothy Rouse’s sociologically oriented review is a neat, swift map of all the great themes waiting to be found, analyzed and discussed in Natural Born Killers. He quickly places the film into the category of the postmodern, quoting Todd Gitlin’s definition of it as “a constellation of styles and tones,” but doesn’t dwell on the issue in order to carry on with his review. He doesn’t bog down his reader with lengthy personal musings or painstaking passages in search of the most perfect way to express himself, instead he explains the scope of the themes he witnessed by merely mentioning the their variety, such as Jimmy Olsen from Superman comics and the American media’s complete disregard for Native American societal conditions, and suggests what parts of the film should be compared to what examples from other areas of academics, for us to contemplate, and moves on: the economic aspect of the film, he says, should be compared to that of the Wizard of Oz, wherein the studio makes sure the driving theme of the genre is the driving theme of its profits: for the Wizard of Oz, fairytales; for Natural Born Killers, brutal action. Half of this short review is Rouse’s own narration of a few scenes from the movie, where he ties together the violent elements of Mickey’s character with the seductiveness of Mallory’s image, and then demonstrates with simplicity the backdrop of the drooling media goon and frenetic prison ward, all the while continually giving credit to Oliver Stone’s filmmaking techniques by picking out a detail of a shot, or a moment of composition, and openly relating what that single trait meant to him as an appreciative viewer.

Rouse is extremely open-minded in his appraisal, acknowledging the need for disclaimers from teachers before showing Natural Born Killers to classes but also immediately looking past the surface of what, for some, may appear to be mindless violence, unnecessary sex and tasteless gore that negatively affects the viewer. The review ends with a list of questions which provide topics of discussion for other classes and seminars almost by the line, all of which breakdown the elements of the film into clear issues with cues for the discussion’s beginning, such as the physical attractiveness of our cinema’s violent heroes, the American media’s blurry distinction between news and entertainment, the effect that uncertainty brings on crime levels and criminal mentalities, the media’s impact on culture and the role of gender in violent media.

Killers Case Dismissed

‘KILLERS’ CASE DISMISSED'. By: Shprintz, Janet, Daily Variety, 00115509, 03/13/2001, Vol. 271, Issue 10 EBSCO 9 Apr. 2008

This article tells how Oliver Stone and his distribution company were taken to court over a wrongful-death lawsuit involving a murder supposedly inspired by Stone’s Natural Born Killers, and how the case was eventually dismissed. Sarah Edmonson shot clerk Patsy Byers during a convenience store robbery, while her boyfriend Benjamin Darrus waited in the car. Patsy Byers’ family tried to make the case that Stone’s film inspired the couple to commit the crime, drawing on that the two had watched the film prior to the crime, and that the film was about a love-duo who traveled by car on a crime spree. The judge dismissed the case on account of lack of evidence for Stone and Time Warner Entertainment’s direct influence over the Edmonson and Darrus’ actions, as well as consideration for their constitutional rights to expression, placing the film under First Amendment protection.

This article is important to thinking about two different aspects of Natural Born Killers. The first is the issue of the copycat, the theory that violence in media incites violence in real life. Although it was ruled that there was no evidence suggesting Stone and his distribution company intended to spur violent crime through their film, that doesn’t mean the film did not do so on its own regardless of any intentions. The second issue is the subject matter of the film, which is a commentary on violence (one that applies to Edmonson and Darrus’ violent crime as much as any crime that took place before the film’s release), and what Stone’s film was truly trying to achieve. As Stone is quoted as saying in the article, Natural Born Killers was created to move “the audience to think critically about society’s contradictory relationship to violence.” The film makes one realize how much demand there is for viewing violence, despite the collective sentiments that violence is an unwanted facet of our physical realities. Edmonson and Darrus’ crime certainly reinforces the latter half of that statement, as only pain and punishment came from their actions. Most of us are happy to buy into the glory of violence on screen, and to root for the violent heroes that always make it out alright. But most of us are also responsible and intelligent enough to know the difference between real death and diagetic death, and when one evaluates the amount of people who viewed the film versus the amount of people who did so and were then inspired to emulate the characters, one should conclude that the act of copying violence from media into real life is one accomplished by only the socially abnormal.

The New Mythology of Crime

The article “New Mythology of Crime”, by John G. Cawelti examines the major popularity and acclaim associated with movie “The Godfather” and the reasons historically and socially for it rise to prominence in the minds of American entertainment consumers.

People throughout history have been fascinated with crime, especially violent crime. In its earliest example we have the Illiad and several works of Shakespeare. This article takes a look at the progression of man’s fascination with crime or violence and how the development of the crime myth has has been shaped as a result the way in which the public identifies with character of the criminal.

Cawelti examines the possibility that “The Godfather” popularity and renown can be accredited not only to what he describes as “Skillful writing, striking and emotionally involving characters and situation, and a powerfully unified action”, but also to the creation of a new type of crime mythology. He goes on to describe the development of the crime myth throughout history and shows its departure from the traditional dichotomy of moral good and sin towards dynamics that place the criminal in the role of the main character. Several factors influenced the development of the crime myth throughout the 19^th and 20^th centuries. Among these are the development of the detective story, which helped to create a sort of intrigue towards stories of crime and criminal activity. Romanticized criminal characters such as Robin hood and Jesse James also developed during the 19^th and 20^th as well as a deeper insight into the criminal mind through the fields of psychology and sociology.

A unique aspect of “The Godfather” was the importance and imagery of the family to refer to a criminal organization. This conceit began a new type of association with the criminal character, a sort of understanding or identification with character that was never so prevalent in the crime myth previously. Also, “The Godfather” introduced a sense of awe or fascination with the power and respect of the criminal organization as a whole. The combination of these factors are clearly evident in the film as various parts of the movie are defined by family events, whether it is the wedding of Vito Corleone’s daughter or the baptism of Michael Corleone’s godson, the criminal activities are consistently connected directly with the family. The development of these new conceits is just one of the factors that set “The Godfather” apart as unique and help to explain its tremendous popularity.

When A Tame Film Inspires Violence

Canby, Vincent. "When A Tame Film Inspires Violence." New York Times 04 May 1979: D19.

The article discusses and considers whether it is possible that a film such as The Warriors could possibly be the cause of 3 deaths that supposedly occurred due to the film’s release. It discusses the advertising campaign as well as the precautions taken by Paramount by supplying additions security guard to theatres showing the film. It is questioned whether “yanking” the film from theatres would have been an appropriate plan of action for the film which was causing headline news regarding association to three deaths. But the notion is quickly dismissed since doing so would be a poor precedent for similar occurrences in the future. The author argues that a better solution would be to handle the potential situation on a local level, having each theatres act responsibly for itself and be prepared for whatever situation could arise. It is next investigated why this particular film would incite such excitement as there are plenty of other films with much more violence than The Warriors. Despite being a genre much used during the World War II era, the “Lost Patrol” film has been reworked for The Warriors in a fashion that leaves all of the members very vulnerable throughout. The author of the article states that he wonders how anyone could possibly get so inflamed over a film filled completely with a mish-mash of clichés and moods. Its feel throughout is not terror, but instead parody. As evidenced by the film's two major fight scenes, they appear choreographed and rehearsed and despite the use of lethal weapons, none of the fighters get killed or even injured badly.

This article attempts to pick apart The Warriors in a manner that would learn what would cause such a vitriolic response. It comes to the conclusion that a film such as The Warriors could not possibly cause such a response because of its heavy reliance on fantasy and parody.

Gangs Gone Wild: Low-Budget Gang Documentaries

Gunckel, Colin. "“Gangs Gone Wild”: Low-Budget Gang Documentaries." The Velvet Light Trap 60(2007): 37-46.

This article discusses gangs and how they are portrayed in the public media through exploitation documentary. It questions whether the way they are being shown is the best way to do so because it glamorizes the gang lifestyle to the public, possibly corrupting the youth’s view of gangs. This article analyses the trend of gang based documentaries and the effect it has on the film industry. Specifically The World Most Dangerous Gang, a documentary on La Mara Salvatrucha portrays the gang in a poor light for the public eye. It uses a sensationalistic and exploitative method turning it into more entertainment than a serious documentary should be. Then it discusses different types of films made for release direct to DVD. These raw documentaries are cheap and easy exploitations to create. Film series such as Bumfights and Girls Gone Wild are cited as examples of the genre of exploitation documentary.

This article relates to The Warriors in that it exploits the gang genre, in a manner that glamorizes the gang lifestyle. It creates allure to the violent life led by gang members. With all the glamour, it could possible cause viewers of the film to get overly excited by the film and act irrationally. This violence might extend into real-life and cause serious injury or death, as occured in the days following The Warriors's public release. The gang exploitation film genre has been designed in such a way using rap soundtracks and flashy images of gang members that it would appeal to viewers similarly to how it has been argued that The Warriors appeals violence to its viewers.

Violent Media is Good for Kids

Jones, Gerard. "Violent Media is Good for Kids." Mother Jones 29 June 2000 04 Apr 2008.

This article, unlike most, supports violent media for consumption by youth. The author recounts his youth when he was a quiet, lonely, and reclusive child who was broken out of his shell when he encountered comics about The Incredible Hulk. Reading about the Hulk gave him a fantasy self to support his self-confidence and allow him to do things he could otherwise not do. He later tested this concept on his son who was afraid to climb a tree with his friends by reading him Tarzan comics. For his son, the violent Tarzan comics created an imaginary alter ego to help him overcome personal hurdles. It is noted that all people want to experience fear, greed, power-hunger, and rage but cannot, so experiencing them vicariously through others, is a solution for them. Violent media is also useful to young people by helping them improve their self-knowledge and potential through heroic, combative storytelling. Pretending to have superpowers helps them to overcome a sense of powerlessness. Using this violence as tool is very important to overcome life’s challenges. The author does not deny that many video games may have inspired forms of violence in some kids, but argues that for every one that it hurt, it helped hundreds. The author finally warns that if parents are to shield their children from violent media then they will inevitably be shielding them also from power and selfhood.

This relates to the thesis by discussing how violent media affects the youth. He feels strongly that media such as The Warriors is a vital asset to youth as a method of emotional support. Most people need some sort of system to give them confidence in activities they would otherwise be uncomfortable partaking in. So in the case of The Warriors, the film would be very useful as a means of physical confidence and strength.

The Warriors Stirs Up Violent Storm

“The Warriors Stirs Up Violent Storm." Globe and Mail [Canada] 02 Mar 1979.

The article discusses the level of violence that The Warriors has as well as the violence focused advertising campaign. It cites two specific occasions where real life violence occurred directly after a viewing of the film. It is discussed how critics connected the violence to the film and the film production company Paramount denies any connection between the events and the film. Despite their denial, they still changed a number of things regarding the film. The advertising campaign was completely modified and reduced to only include the name of the film, the theatres it was playing at and the times it was being shown. Also, free additionally security guards were paid to work at theatres showing the film by Paramount.

This article related to the thesis in the fact that it discusses the events surrounding the release of the film. The gang-film genre is exemplified and magnified very well through The Warriors as it is a very stereotypical gang film in some senses and has the real-life violence surrounding it.

Mortal Kombat Viral Is Tool For Bullying, Claims Charity

Croft, Martin, and Nathalie Kilby. "Mortal Kombat Viral Is Tool For Bullying, Claims Charity." Marketing Week 16 Nov 2006: 3.

This article explains how an anti-bullying charity group is complaining about a video game campaign for Mortal Kombat. In this campaign people are directed to a website where they can upload images of their friends to be superimposed on the fighting video game characters. These superimposed Mortal Kombat characters are then sent to that person in the form of a “Death Diss” whereby the character is brutally murdered. The charity Bullying Online worries that real life bullies will upload images of their enemies to this site and it will only cause issues between the two parties in question. It states that the site has already seen examples of people using this viral marketing tool as a malicious way to insult somebody. A complaint about this advertisement campaign was made to the Advertising Standards Authority, the leading groups in controlling advertising. It is unknown if this campaign will cause the dreaded actions Bullying Online is worrying about.

This article relates to the thesis because violent media is being used in a manner that could potentially cause a movement to action by the receiving end of this viral marketing campaign. There are great worries by Bullying Online that such an advertising campaign might enrage somebody so much that they might react very violently against the opposing person. Just as The Warriors caused a few kids to act violently due to the violent media being viewed, there is a concern that this viral marketing campaign could cause the same response.

Computer Games like Quake and Doom probably won't turn your son into a killer. But what is happening to kids raised on the most violent, interactive mass-media entertainment ever devised?

Keegan, Paul. "Computer Games like Quake and Doom probably won't turn your son into a killer. But what is happening to kids raised on the most violent, interactive mass-media entertainment ever devised?." Mother Jones Nov 1999 04 Apr 2008 .

This article revolves around a visit to E3, an annual gaming tradeshow. Its focus is to discuss the different genres of video games, but in particular the violent ones. It then attempts to analyze why these violent games become so popular. Throughout, there is always a hesitant tone as the Columbine shootings had occurred only three weeks prior to this conference. There is discussion of the ESRB rating system and how it is hardly enforced by parents or rental stores. The article proceeds to look at Myst, an extremely popular game that involves no violence whatsoever. Its appeal was solely through beautifully rendered images and fog that the character walks through on its mysterious journey. It is however noted that something seemed to be missing from this experience. That is where real-time 3D comes into play. It is a new generation of cutting edge computer games that render the scenery on the fly, completely immersing the player in the gameplay. This type of play has an appeal due to the adrenaline rush and excitement it causes that more static, slow paced games like Myst cannot match. These types of games undoubtedly engage the player deeply into their digital surroundings. It suggests that playing violent video games for extended periods of time numbs the player to the violence and they create a level of tolerance for violence.

This article relates to the topic by examining super violent video games, real-time 3D games in particular and their effect on players. It is pretty evident that despite their incredible ability to immerse the player in the gameplay, the ones playing are able to keep the game and real life separate. The only times when this is untrue when other circumstances are involved, in the case of Columbine, mental instability in two kids who happened to enjoy these types of games were some other circumstances. Like viewers of The Warriors, most will not become overwhelmed by the violence and will respond absolutely normally. Those who act out in response to the film are doing so because they have issues and not solely because of the violence being seen.

Attractions to Violence and the Limits of Education

Duncum, Paul. "Attractions to Violence and the Limits of Education." The Journal of Aesthetic Education 40.4(2006): 21-38.

This article attempts to examine violence in the media and educate youth on how to act in the real world so violence is not used as a solution to their problems. It cites the following forms of media as sources of violence: television, film, video, and computer games. There are also four different types of violence that can be seen in the media: comic, transgressive, retaliatory, and gratuitous. The author wonders why, from a psychological standpoint, people are attracted to violence. A couple of possible reasons are given such as: exploitation of the worst in human nature or a product of an increasingly degenerate society or maybe just a fashion statement or possibly just finding pure pleasure in the art of violence.

Comic violence is defined pretty clearly by example with any Tarantino film. His film clearly spoofs and parodies other super violent films. Additionally, professional wrestling fits into this category. Transgressive violence is any violence having to do with heroism through violence. It includes superheroes beating super-villains and enjoying the retribution being seen. This category surprisingly also includes a game such as Grand Theft Auto, where you embrace the villain and want to succeed as the villain. Retaliatory violence always has to do with retribution. When you feel bad for a character, you want them to get their revenge. Finally, gratuitous violence is when there is an overwhelming amount of violence that is unlimited in every sense of the word. It is all about grandeur and gore. Startin in the 1960s, media became more and more violent. Now, the line between good and evil gets blurred and the level of gore and shock has increased dramatically in media.

This article relates to the thesis by explaining the different types of violence seen in the media. It points out that gratuitous violence would be the most likely candidate to cause real world violence because the media appeals most to that type of person; however, it is unlikely to cause such actions because the people who would really go on rampages do not get the level of excitement from the film, because they would rather have the real life thrill. This article also explains how people are more aggressive prior to viewing the media than after, further supporting the idea that violent media does not cause violence.

Two Movie 'Sleepers' That Woke Up Fast; Neighborhood Rumble; 'The Warriors' -- Surly Kids Pack a Box-Office Wallop

Arnold, Gary. “Two Movie 'Sleepers' That Woke Up Fast; Neighborhood Rumble; 'The Warriors' -- Surly Kids Pack a Box-Office Wallop." Washington Post 18 Mar 1979, Final: H1.

The article discusses in depth the release week of The Warriors. It mentions the advertising campaign used as well as the post-release actions taken by Paramount. Due to the two killing that occurred that week that were associated and linked to the viewing of the film Paramount offered to all theatres, free of charge, additional security guards as a precautionary measure. Also it touches on the fact that after the first (successful) weekend, all conventional advertising for the film was pulled due to the angle taken with the advertising campaign putting the film in a bad light, further associating it with the real life violence that occurred surrounding it. Additionally it discusses other precautions that were taken, including allowing theaters to discontinue showing of the film without penalty. After 2 weeks of successful film showing without violence, the advertising campaign re-expanded to include favorable reviews that had been occurring over the release weeks.

This article reviews another article written for Reuters where Sol Yurick, the author of the book The Warriors is based off of, discusses his opinion of the violence occurring in response to the film’s release. Both he and Paramount deny that the film itself is the cause of the two deaths. Yurick stated that another film out at the same time had much more violence than The Warriors, so the film's violence could not fairly be blamed for the deaths that occurred. Paramount stated that these consequences never occurred to them because they were filming the movie in a style very related to fantasy. It is a well known fact that this film is based off of the Greek myth Xenophon's "Anabasis" thus holding the level of fantasy true. Addionally, the level of choreography in The Warrior’s fight scene is very apparent and holds the film back from the level of realism required for such claims to be valid.

Therefore the film could not have possibly caused the realworld violence that critics had claimed and blamed on The Warriors. It instead, must have been a set of coincidences that were wrongfully associated with a artfully violent film.

20th Anniversary Of The Movie, "The Warriors"; How It Sparked Controversy When It Was First Released And Why It Revolutionized Action Movies

"20th Anniversary Of The Movie, "The Warriors"; How It Sparked Controversy When It Was First Released And Why It Revolutionized Action Movies." NPR's Weekend Edition. Scott Simon. NPR, US. 20 Feb 1999.

This transcript from a 1999 NPR Radio show discusses why on the 20^th anniversary of The Warriors, it should be remembered. The main reason mentioned is that it was the precursor to a genre of action film. It was the raw, gritty style with an emphasis on character development instead of dialog to push the plot forward. Also it inspired much of the current generation of film directors in their style. It discusses that there is a sort of paranoia derived from the premise of the movie, the fact that 60,000 gang members could take over and run New York City. This notion alone gives the viewers of this movie a strong sense of the power that the masses could have.

The aspects of the genre that this film really influenced includes very choreographed fights and action, a move taken from Bruce Lee type Kung-Fu movies. The way the fight scene was assembled made the members of the Warriors appear to be heroic in a sense.

It is questioned whether The Warriors is actually an anti-gang movie, but this notion is quickly shut down since the movie clearly shows the unified gangs breaking down into individual factions once again.

Warren Beatty and Arthur Penn

Boucher, Geoff. "The stickup that shook it up; Warren Beatty and Arthur Penn recall how their cinematic spree of 'Bonnie and Clyde' transformed Hollywood." Los Angeles Times 23 Mar. 2008. LexisNexis Academic. LexisNexis. 26 Mar. 2008. http://proxy.library.upenn.edu:5591/us/lnacademic/returnTo.do?returnToKey=20_T3420152182

The Los Angeles Times article interviews Warren Beatty and Arthur Penn to provide unique insight into the production and impact of Bonnie and Clyde. Boucher describes Bonnie and Clyde as a “jarring film” full of bloody realism, thrills, and anti-establishment themes. While some critics and older viewers saw the film as a sign of amoral society, the film really resonated with young audiences because it was new and different. Penn called the film “part Texas, part Paris”, which signifies the integration of American themes and French New Wave cinema. Additionally, Beatty recalls how Jack Warner consistently reminded him of “who’s name was on the water tower” to assert his power. Regardless, Penn and Beatty agreed not to change the script or the graphic depiction of violence; defying a studio head was a groundbreaking move. Furthermore, instead of filming on the Warner lot, Penn moved production to small towns throughout Texas to enhance the realism of the film and depict the desperation of the rural countryside. Both Beatty and Warner recall how they were unaware of how influential the film would be.
These interviews lend unique, first-hand support to the idea that Bonnie and Clyde changed Hollywood institutions and set new standards. Penn and Beatty both acknowledge that they did things their own way, and not necessarily how things had been done in the past, which contributed to the immense success of this film. They inspired a new generation of filmmakers who had a personal vision, and attracted younger audiences by breaking tradition.

Dream life : movies, media, and the mythology of the sixties / J. Hoberman.

Call#: Van Pelt Library PN1993.5.U6 H56 2003

Hoberman, J. “If You Are a Bonnie-and-Clyder…:The Birth of Radical Chic.” The Dream Life: Movies, Media and the Mythology of the Sixties. New York: The New Press, 2003.

Hoberman discusses the influx of violence in American society, and how Bonnie and Clyde simultaneously changed the depiction of violence on screen. In fact, he uses the term “pornoviolence” to explain the new cultural fascination with violence. Released in 1967, Bonnie and Clyde was preceded by a summer of extreme turbulence, ranging from race riots to the Black Panthers violent crusade. Bonnie and Clyde’s release was extremely provocative (including the slogan “They’re young, they’re in love…and they kill people”). The film endears viewers to the main characters, especially in the beginning with the outlaws’ comic slipups. Furthermore, the criminals are depicted with both symbols of power (such as guns) and freedom (such as fast cars). This heightened the controversy surrounding the film because never before had cold-blooded killers also been seen as likable and alluring. Yet, given the cultural context, the rebellious nature of the main characters was well received by a society full of upheaval and protest.
Hoberman’s analysis clearly supports the idea that Bonnie and Clyde broke taboos and glamorized forbidden lifestyles. Hoberman says that Bonnie and Clyde introduced a carefree, enchanting, yet rebellious “bonnie-and-clyder” attitude in society. More specifically, he says this movie led to “the birth of radical chic," which he defines as a trend away from convention and toward radicalism. Arthur Penn made violence entertaining and created sympathetic perpetrators, which established a new way to portray criminals and violence.

BONNIE AND CLYDE AND CHRISTY MAHON: PLAYBOYS ALL.

"BONNIE AND CLYDE AND CHRISTY MAHON: PLAYBOYS ALL." Modern drama [0026-7694] 14.2 (1971). 227-.

Perfecting the New Gangster.

"Perfecting the New Gangster." Film quarterly [0015-1386] 53.4 (2000). 16-.

Gunning for a New Slow Motion: The 45-Degree Shutter and the Representation of Violence.

"Gunning for a New Slow Motion: The 45-Degree Shutter and the Representation of Violence." Journal of film and video [0742-4671] 56.2 (2004). 45-.

Film History Project

Bonnie and Clyde - Movie - Review - New York Times

Crowther, Bosley. "Bonnie and Clyde." The New York Times 14 Apr. 1967. 5 Apr.
     2008 <http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/
     review?res=EE05E7DF173CE361BC4C52DFB266838C679EDE>.

    Bosley Crowther’s original New York Times review condemns Bonnie and Clyde, most famously declaring, “This blending of farce with brutal killings is as pointless as it is lacking in taste.” His review criticizes both the lead actors and director for combining slapstick comedy with gory violence, which he finds neither entertaining nor purposeful. This review clearly demonstrates how appalled Crowther was with the level of violence and “ridiculous” portrayal of crime. Not only does he find the combination of comedy and violence horrific, but says the film is not at all representative of the real story of the Barrow Gang. Lastly, Crowther attacks the portrayal of a “sleazy, moronic pair” as fun-loving, carefree, and sympathetic characters.
    This review lends unique insight into the immediate and controversial reception of the film. Crowther clearly represents those critics who belive this movie was too graphic and insensitive in its glamorization of crime. It is significant to note that despite such scathing reviews, the film was a huge success, which demonstrates Bonnie and Clyde’s ability to speak to and attract audiences.

Restaging the War: The Deer Hunter and the Primal Scene of Violence

Chong, Sylvia Shin Huey. “Restaging the War: The Deer Hunter and the Primal Scene of Violence.” Cinema Journal 44, Number 2, Winter 2005. Project MUSE. Johns Hopkins University Press. University of Pennsylvania Library, Philadelphia. 28 Mar. 2006. http://hdl.library.upenn.edu/1017/7076

This article discusses the violent content present in The Deer Hunter. The article claims that the film’s style and depiction of violence cause the American and Vietnamese characters to become interchangeable, a symbol for the ethical and emotional confusion of the war. This confusion, the article argues, mirrors the real life confusion Americans faced after the war when they tried to forget the mistakes of the war, while being constantly confronted with them because of increased Vietnamese immigration to the United States.

The article focuses extensively on the Russian roulette scene that takes place when the main characters of the film are held captive by Vietcong soldiers, making the argument that the camera angles used in the scene confuse any attempt audience members may make to identify with specific characters. The constant change of perspective and lack of continuity editing such as shot/reverse shot in this scene, the article argues, is disorienting and makes identification with the characters difficult.

The article also argues that the way in which the characters are staged in the roulette scene when it is their turn to play the game replicates the famous photograph “Saigon Execution” taken during the Vietnam War. This photograph captures a scene of a South Vietnamese solider executing a communist Vietnamese spy. The shooter in this photograph immigrated to the United States after the war, where he became a successful business owner, but he was later caught in a large scandal over his previous actions in Vietnam; he was only spared deportation by a pardon by President Carter. This is only one example of how Americans were forced to confront their mistakes of the war, the article argues, as well as an example of how Americans have had trouble moving past the war and dealing with prejudice against Asian immigrants.

Taxi Driver Annotated Bibliography

An annotated bibliography for the film Taxi Driver, by Martin Scorsese and Paul Schrader

"Are You Talking to Me?"--New York and the Cinema of Urban Alienation

Clapp, James A. ""Are You Talking to Me?"--New York and the Cinema of Urban Alienation" Visual anthropology [0894-9468] 18.1 (2005). 1-18.

This article looks at urban alienation generally, and New York City in particular: the “overdeveloped, overcontrolled city” as a setting for social alienation. Clapp sees this tradition beginning with Fritz Lang’s Metropolis, which was based on New York City. Applied to Taxi Driver, it is appropriate then that we see in Scorsese’s work certain staples of Expressionism in the treatment of the urban environment.

Clapp’s subject here is urbanization, and how film has become perhaps the primary medium by which the problems of urbanization are expressed. As human communities grow larger and larger, Clapp argues, people cease to be part of meaningful communities, and instead become “strangers.” New York is the token in this respect, being larger, faster paced, and more diverse than most other cities. As such, it has become the main cinematic setting for depicting urban alienation. For Clapp, Travis Bickle’s line “Are you talkin’ to me?” concisely sums up this alienation, wrapped in suspicion and cynicism that could only grow in the total absence of community.

This perspective contains a more sociological spin on the themes present in Taxi Driver, though it does not spend much time examining that film in particular. Clapp provides a paradigm by which the nebulous identification which the audience feels for Travis may be reasonably explained. Applying his view, the specific historical context of Vietnam and 1970’s political turmoil is only part of the picture in understanding Taxi Driver. When the City itself is seen as a character in its own right, it becomes apparent that the audience identifies with Travis because they have a similar relationship to the giant, impersonal metropolis.

Violence: The Strong and the Weak

McKinney, Devin. "Violence: The Strong and the Weak" Film quarterly [0015-1386] 46.4 16-22.

McKinney discusses different ways of interpreting and categorizing cinematic violence, dividing it into two categories: strong and weak. His basic proposition is that “some nightmares are worth having,” in the sense that violence can peel away rationality, forcing a confrontation with issues and ambiguities that would not be allowed to surface within the boundaries of normal socialization. In McKinney’s scheme, “strong” violence is that which is emotionally and morally complex; “the paradoxes of strong violence are rich and maze-like,” drawing out responses in the audience that would not otherwise be possible.

“Weak” violence, on the other hand, “thrives on sterile contradiction: it reduces bloodshed to its barest components, then inflates them with hot, stylized air.” McKinney sees this type of violent imagery everywhere in contemporary filmmaking, as a reflexive response to increasingly visible violence in the global community. It can be consumed without thought, repeatedly, never eliciting a new response, never “outlasting its moment.”

The value of McKinney’s division is that it allows the carnage of a film like Taxi Driver to be understood outside of a moralizing condescension. This is violence with a purpose, which shocks not for shock’s sake but to arouse a tangle of questions in the minds of the audience. Taxi Driver calls attention to the sometimes arbitrary division between what is justifiable and what is senseless, and its visceral exploration of this ambiguity is precisely what McKinney means by “strong violence.”

From Outcast to Cliche: How Film Shaped, Warped, and Developed the Image of the Vietnam Veteran, 1967-1990

Katzman, Jason. "From Outcast to Cliche: How Film Shaped, Warped, and Developed the Image of the Vietnam Veteran, 1967-1990" Journal of American culture [0191-1813] 16.1 (1993). 7-24.

Katzman examines the cyclic relationship between cinematic depictions and public perceptions of the Vietnam veteran in the 1970’s and 80’s. He sees a general fear of the returning soldier throughout American history, not just after Vietnam, but notes that Vietnam was the first television war – as such, it introduced ambiguities about heroes and villains into the public consciousness that had not been present before. Thus, a new cinematic archetype was born, the representation of which Katzman divides into four stages over two decades: outcast, then shameful character, then an object of sympathy, and finally a subject requiring realistic explanation. Katzman places Taxi Driver in between the first two stages. He sees Travis’s New York as a battleground analogous to Vietnam, where the lone soldier fights to survive.

While in Katzman’s view Taxi Driver reinforces negative stereotypes of the Vietnam veteran, he feels its conclusion introduces an important ambiguity. Where other writers see a simple lack of closure in the film’s conclusion, Katzman argues that Travis’s choice of violent action relates to America’s decision to go to war: his failed attempt at assassinating the senator is the “wrong war at the wrong time,” like Vietnam, but that Travis’s triumph is in finding the “right war at the right time,” by setting Iris free. On the one hand, this is a reinforcement of the stereotype that the veteran only knows how to be violent, but on the other, it gives the audience reason for pause – in this case, the only thing that distinguishes hero from monster is a slight change of context. Thus, perhaps the veteran as portrayed in the character of Travis may be seen as worthy of some grace.

Films of Martin Scorsese, 1963-77 : authorship and context / Leighton Grist.

Grist, Leighton.. Films of Martin Scorsese, 1963-77 : authorship and context / Leighton Grist. [0312229917 (cloth)] New York : St. Martin's Press, 2000.
Call#: Van Pelt Library PN1998.3.S39 G75 2000

Chapter on Taxi Driver pp. 123-157

Grist breaks down his critical analysis of Taxi Driver into loosely related sections, in a chronological retelling of the film’s major plot points. While not a strict scene-by-scene analysis, it covers most of the major themes and all of the major characters in the narrative, relating them to their film antecedents and not so much to political or historical context. In terms of genre, though in many ways Taxi Driver can be seen as an urban western, Grist feels that it applies a “disabling generic revision” and is in many ways an example of New Hollywood Cinema. Grist points out that Taxi Driver can be read as a direct response to Death Wish as well.

Also, Taxi Driver is a product of two auteurs (Scorsese and Schrader) who often draw from personal experience when making films. In Schrader’s case, there is an obvious connection between Taxi Driver and his essay “Notes on Film Noir,” but Grist also points to Schrader’s writings on the Transcendental style of Ozu and Bresson as being equally connected with Taxi Driver.

Overall, Grist sees the film as a relentlessly bleak reading of American life in the 1970’s, appropriating themes from films before it to create a vision of a society gone horrible wrong (as evidenced by Travis’s slipping through the cracks of the social structure). It sets up a dichotomy between willfully naïve idealism and smug cynicism that is uncomfortable, especially as it provides no closure for the audience.

Cinema of Martin Scorsese / Lawrence S. Friedman.

Friedman, Lawrence S.. Cinema of Martin Scorsese / Lawrence S. Friedman. [0826410049 (hardcover : alk. paper)] New York : Continuum, 1997.
Call#: Van Pelt Library PN1998.3.S39 F75 1997

Lawrence Friedman treats Travis Bickle as the archetypal antihero of all of Scorsese’s films, and looks at and incredibly broad range of literature to find the roots of his character. For Friedman, Travis “embodies the dictum of Marlow, the narrator of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness: ‘We live, as we dream—alone.’” Friedman’s premise is that Travis must see his loneliness as evidence of a “God-ordained” singularity, so that he is the “avenging angel” on a mission to purge “Sodom and Gomorrah” (i.e. New York City) of its darkness. Thus, his loneliness transforms from a liability into a “holy calling.” Friedman argues that this would not be so unsettling if it were treated as aberrant, a case study in “abnormal psychology.” Rather, it is the commonality of loneliness that makes Travis’s state, though extreme, all too familiar.

Friedman echoes other authors in this respect, but in particular his analysis carries the audience’s identification a step further: the “walking contradiction,” as Betsy puts it, is that Travis is “one of us” through and through, though that is precisely what he struggles to feel – like he belongs to a larger whole. The implication here is truly paranoia-inducing: none of us belong, or to echo the sentiments of Conrad’s Marlow, we are doomed alienation, and must settle for comforting illusion. For Travis, that illusion comes in the form of heroic fantasies. The only real difference between him and us is that he has the courage to act them out. Furthermore, Travis’s success frighteningly suggests that violence may be the only real solution to societal ills. In Friedman’s view, his character is essentially engaged in the Hamlet-esque struggle of “to be or not to be:” whether to suffer or take arms against the sea of troubles.

Scorsese psyche on screen : roots of themes and characters in the films / Maria T. Miliora.

Miliora, Maria T., 1938- . Scorsese psyche on screen : roots of themes and characters in the films / Maria T. Miliora. [0786417633 (alk. paper) ] Jefferson, N.C. : McFarland & Co., c2004
Call#: Van Pelt Library PN1998.3.S39 M55 2004

This text deals extensively with Scorsese’s portrayal of masculinity and male sexuality throughout many of his films – specifically in Taxi Driver, it points to Travis Bickle’s rejection by the virginal Betsy as a major trigger in his descent into madness. Miliora focuses extensively on Travis’s perception of Betsy as a kind of savior from the filth that surrounds him, a pure figure who can help Travis to “become a person” if he can have intimacy with her. Yet precisely because he has not yet become “a person,” he is unable to communicate and is rejected.

Once rejected, Travis’s perception of her shifts such that she is no longer perceived as being “clean” like him, but “scum” just like everyone else. Miliora points to Betsy as a quintessential figure in Scorsese’s oft-used “Madonna-whore complex,” who becomes filthy in Travis’s mind after she rejects him. His response is to become a kind of redeemer-messiah figure, trying to save an actual whore, Iris, by violently delivering her from her prostitution. Though this attempt is obviously misguided and pathological, it inadvertently gets Travis what he wants. At the end, when he sees Betsy again, he is able to reject her because he no longer needs her.

In Miliora’s analysis, Travis is an archetypal figure in Scorsese’s treatment of gender relations, providing a blueprint for many of his later characters, all of whom are informed by a kind of “failed masculinity” that rose to the public consciousness following the return of the armed forces from Vietnam. This is probably one of the better texts on the gender issues side of Scorsese’s films generally, particularly as it applies to the post-Vietnam sense of alienation that figures so prominently in Taxi Driver.

Scorsese on Scorsese / edited by David Thompson and Ian Christie.

Scorsese, Martin, 1942-. Scorsese on Scorsese / edited by David Thompson and Ian Christie. [057114103X :] London ; Boston : Faber and Faber, 1989.
Call#: Van Pelt Library PN1998.3.S39 A3 1989

Section on Taxi Driver pp. 53-67

Scorsese talks about the details of production and how he ended up working with Paul Schrader on Taxi Driver. Some of the original storyboards for the film are included. Scorsese also tells that the inspiration behind much of the visual loneliness in Taxi Driver is from his experience growing up in New York – how his personal experiences had a dreamlike quality to them, which he wanted to capture in the film. Yet this “dreaminess” is for Scorsese not a positive quality, but connotes disease and decay, which become Travis Bickle’s triggers first for uneasiness, then for violence. He is Scorsese’s own “avenging angel” fantasy, come to rid the streets of scum and riffraff.

Speaking of the general sense of paranoia Travis experiences, Scorsese directly credits Hitchcock’s The Wrong Man as a source of formal inspiration. He also claims that there is no boundary between reality and fantasy in terms of how they are treated in film, and that applying this principle forcefully in Taxi Driver is what gives Travis’s insanity credibility. He also credits John Ford’s The Searchers with providing a model for the post-war male who cannot find a place to belong.

Scorsese confirms the prevailing attitudes about the film centering on loneliness and its consequences, but says little about the cultural context of its narrative. He views the film in a very personal way, identifying with Travis’s loneliness, and expecting the audience to feel likewise, such that when the violent act comes at the end, there is both attraction and revulsion. Catharsis is needed, but when its form is realized, it becomes sickening and ironic, no better than the problems it sought to solve.

Scorsese up close : a study of the films / Ben Nyce.

Nyce, Ben. . Scorsese up close : a study of the films / Ben Nyce. [0810847876 (alk. paper) ] Lanham, Md. : Scarecrow Press, 2004.
Call#: Van Pelt Library PN1998.3.S39 N93 2004

Travis Bickle is a time bomb, but Nyce asserts that “our criminal excesses grow out of our normality.” Travis’s normality is clear in his desire for a normal life, and in Nyce’s opinion, it is his extreme naïveté that prevents him from fulfilling this desire. From this inability to grow up sprouts an “extremely distorted idealism” that leads Travis to feel powerless, awash in anxiety and a “guilty conscience.” For Nyce, the locus of the film is the growing obsession to expunge the conscience of all that Travis has seen and been part of; the “scum in the streets” becomes the scum in his mind. As the narrative progresses, the protagonist ironically becomes both more pathological and more naïve.

Nyce calls attention to Scorsese’s use of subjective, expressionist camera-work as a means of communicating Travis’s perceptions of the world around him – there is very little that is “healthy and life-enhancing” within view. The sights and sounds passing by in the taxi’s window are intrusive sources of anxiety and guilt. Many seemingly straightforward point-of-view shots are in fact explorations of Travis’s inner turmoil, which grows until he cannot contain it any longer.

In Nyce’s view, the ultimate expression of rage at the end of the film is simply the culmination of Travis’s failure at communication. Similar to other writers who see Taxi Driver as being more generally about the state of community in America in the 60’s and 70’s, Nyce is indeed concerned with the film’s depiction of alienation between people – but beyond that, the disjunction here is specifically one of cultural vocabulary. Travis cannot speak the “common language” as it were, so he cannot “be like other people” as he wishes to be. This is ultimately what drives him to a breaking point, where he can only self-determine by lashing out.

Martin Scorsese : an analysis of his feature films, with a filmography of his entire directorial career / by Marie Katheryn Connelly.

Connelly, Marie Katheryn.. Martin Scorsese : an analysis of his feature films, with a filmography of his entire directorial career / by Marie Katheryn Connelly. [0899508456 (lib. bdg. : alk. paper)] Jefferson, NC : McFarland, c1993.

Connelly’s premise in her chapter on Taxi Driver is that it must be understood as a Modernist work of art. She makes comparisons between the film and two T.S. Eliot works, The Wasteland and J. Alfred Prufrock, pointing out the desolation, despair, and general attitude of pessimism that pervade. She calls attention to Taxi Driver’s complex narrative form and its irony, pointing out that it can be read correctly in multiple ways – sometimes contradictorily so. Further, the film is highly allusive, particularly owing debts to Lang & Hitchcock (especially Psycho).

Connelly calls Taxi Driver a “variant of film-noir,” pointing out the sense of powerlessness against “corrupt universe,” yet in this case the primary source of tension is internal to the protagonist. In this way the film taps into the social paranoia of the post-Vietnam era, when people “ceased to be shocked” but were still anxious and afraid. Travis Bickle finds release for this anxiety by trying to be a hero: he fantasizes, gets ready to “clean up the city” and develops a new aggression – yet targets a politician first, showing himself to be delusional. Ironically, ends up a hero by fluke of circumstances.

In Connelly’s opinion, Taxi Driver is primarily an exploration of loneliness – it calls attention to the importance of community by its very absence. Superficially the audience cannot relate to Travis, yet upon closer inspection, his pathology is just “an extreme form” of a common state of alienation. He is powerless on all fronts, inept and alone, because he has no purpose. When he creates a purpose, it is not for the common good, as he has no sense of community, but instead meant to eliminate the sources of fear in his surroundings.

Taxi Driver / Amy Taubin.

Taubin, Amy.. Taxi Driver / Amy Taubin. [0851703933] London : BFI Publishing, 2000.

Amy Taubin delivers an in-depth and historically contextualized look at Taxi Driver. Her perspective makes use of 20 years of hindsight to read Taxi Driver as a product of (and perhaps a contributor to) the widely felt alienation of the lone male in the post-Vietnam era. Taubin argues that Paul Schrader wrote Travis Bickle as both an autobiographical character and a reflection of the current events of the early 1970’s, citing Arthur Bremer’s attempted assassination of George Wallace as a key influence. Further, by giving voice to a painful isolation and paranoia that so many felt after Vietnam, Taxi Driver inspired copy-catting, most notably the attempted 1980 assassination of Ronald Reagan by John Hinckley III.

Stylistically speaking, Taubin thinks of Taxi Driver as being written after the austere manner of John Ford’s The Searchers, yet shot and directed (by Scorsese) in an expressionist style. Taxi Driver borrows heavily from the French New Wave as well. Taubin also points out that many elements hark back to film-noir: not just the moody low-key lighting and jazz-influenced score, but especially Bickle as the loner anti-hero.

Still, as this anti-hero, Bickle finds no closure in his search for meaning. Even after the bloodbath at the end, Bickle never reaches the orgasm he seeks – which for him can only be death – and therefore fails to bring meaning to his existence. In Taubin’s opinion, this failure encapsulates the manifold failures of culture and politics in America during the 1960’s and 70’s.

YRBSS - Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System - DASH/HealthyYouth

A source for statistics and data on youth risk behaviors in the United States. Data is often presented down to the city level.

The New Mythology of Crime

In defining crime, this article sites The Godfather as a film that not only was wildly successful in its own right, but one that also sparked a crime craze in terms of the manner in which violence was portrayed and consumed by the public. While it does not attempt to claim that this movie somehow created interest in crime, because this is something the article suggests if very innate to human beings, but rather questions how human beings justify their interest in violence and how definitions of crime vary between cultures. Finally, the article seeks to answer the question as to whether or not this film somehow changed beliefs about crime and violence.

In order to consider these questions, and prove The Godfather, both as a film and a novel, is representative of a new morality regarding crime, the authors proceed by comparing the structures of this film to the structures of novels and films in the past. The first aspect of the movie that is considered is the usage of the word “family,” specifically given its historical usage in Italian, which is symbolically used as a replacement for the mafia, or organized crime. The use of the word family as well as the parallel structures drawn from the Corleone family itself to that of the organized crime unit changes how one views the crime family, making it more complex that simply a group of gangsters out to commit crimes.

A second important factor in the view of crime put forth by The Godfather, is the way in which violence is romanticized and justified in the film. As the article suggests, we then understand Don Vito’s choices and become sympathetic to him as a character. As Michael understands him, we too accept his violence.

The article also discusses how a scientific and social approach to crimes had arisen, and places this as a third way in which beliefs about violence were changing. There was a movement, as depicted in this film, away from morals and religion, which were traditionally associated with crimes. Therefore, a new belief system had arisen along with new entertainment.

Effects of Violent Video Games on Aggressive Behavior, Aggressive Cognition, Aggressive Affect, Physiological Arousal, and Prosocial Behavior

A meta-analytic review of literature that examines the physiological and psychological effects of violent video games. Concludes that violent video games increase aggressive behavior in children and young adults. Specifically, violent video games increase physiological arousal and aggressive cognitions, while leading to decreases in prosocial behavior.

Origins of virtue : human instincts and the evolution of cooperation / Matt Ridley. Chapter 7. p125--148

Author Matt Ridley explores the evolution of our emotions in his chapter Theories of Moral Sentiments. We learn how reciprocal altruism could have evolved in a species such as our own. He would call Alex a short sighted fool who does not consider the long term when making decisions. This relates to A Clockwork Orange in that Alex does indeed receive reciprocity, albeit negative, for his actions once he gets out of jail. The author argues that altruism evolved only to benefit the individual through establishing trust with others. Indeed, when Alex fails to treat his droogs altruistically he loses their trust, leading to his demise. Ridley argues that morality is an innate capacity for guilt and empathy but does not always develop in a person due to environmental factors. Clearly, Alex, and hardly any other character, does not possess these emotions due to the mechanized society he developed in. Kubrick depicts a future so daunting that it can wipe the humanity right out of us. Psychopaths, like Alex, are becoming commonplace. Ridley argues that altruism is ultimately selfish, citing different activities that most people do with the expectation of recognition and reward. He points out that Christians are taught to be good in order to get into heaven. Post-treatment Alex, a “true Christian”, could be argues to be better than a regular Christian. If he were free to be good, he would be ultimately doing so out of selfishness: to get into heaven. This is an interesting twist on the argument of removing humanity through mechanizing people. Humanity is selfish; automatons are not. Also, prior to treatment, Alex was not altruistic, and therefore not ultimately selfish in his actions.

A Clockwork Orange: The First 25 Years

Yvonne Ng demonstrates A Clockwork Orange’s controversial history by listing some of its worst criticisms and best rewards. She argues that the film is as relevant today as it was in 1972. She describes the culture of the society in the film as plausible and real. She divides the film into three parts (thesis, antithesis and synthesis): Alex and his droogs enjoying their daily ultra-violence, conditioned Alex receiving retribution from those he tortured, and finally Alex receiving money and help from the government as long as he presents them in a good light.
Ng writes about the state taking away a man’s choice as brainwashing. A state or a church might want “good” citizens as opposed to freedom to choose. This takes away humanity. Ng also points out that everyone in the film is involved in violence and has justifications for it. She commends the director for balancing opposing forces throughout the film, such as freedom with imprisonment, etc. She lauds him for creating in the viewer a belief that the government is at least equally as evil as Alex. Kubrick does this with the inhumane experiment. She compares Alex’s treatment to a similar treatment in the movie A Short Film about Killing.
Ng explains some of the language used by the youngsters in the film, called Nadsat. This language is used to distinguish the young from the adults. She also writes about his filming techniques and what they emphasize. We learn of the meaning of the empty theatre where rape takes place which is also represented by pseudo-art and meaningless culture: the society is spiritually empty. However, Alex, who still appreciates Beethoven is also capable of ultra-violence. Passions are rooted in human nature. She argues that the film is still relevant concerning generation conflict, sources of violence, corruption, and institutional base of power.

Title: Past Future: The Troubled History of Stanley Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange. Source: National forum [0162-1831] yr:2001 vol:81 iss:2 pg:29

Susan Carruthers begins by comparing works that take place in a future year (George Orwell’s 1984, Kubrick’s 2001 and A Clockwork Orange). She then writes about Anthony Burgess’s novel and how it was inspired: four young men gang-raped his wife. She then summarizes the film, pointing out its inconsistencies with the book. She points out that American critics hated it while the British were more favorable. Tabloids created a self-fulfilling prophecy when they predicted copycat crimes, which indeed occurred. So, here, art imitated life (Burgess’ wife’s rape) and later life imitated art. Kubrick believed that film could have no effect on people’s decisions, although the movie makes the opposite point. Carruthers says it is hard to prove causation between on-screen violence and off-screen crime. Initially, Kubrick insisted his name was on the title, but then handed the title over to Burgess, who didn’t like the film anyway and later made a play that mocked Kubrick. Kubrick pulled the movie from theatres, believing his film caused copycat crimes and tired of criticism. It would not appear in England until after his death. Carruthers says that British censors, upon receiving the film for the second time, were more lax with the rape scenes than they would be with today’s films. Kubrick did edit the film for the MPAA to get an R rating, but not for England’s BBFC. However, upon re-release, critics ignored it and so did copycatters.

Title: The new violence or twenty years of violence in films: An appreciation. Source: Films in review [0015-1688] yr:1995 vol:46 iss:1/2 pg:40

             Michael Stein confronts his fear of violence censorship by comparing and justifying violence in a number of films. He suggests that post-Vietnam films contain a different type of American violence. It was no longer the American hero’s violence but a taboo violence viewed as a disease. The films all had a paradoxical theme involving protagonists who use violence to regain their own and other’s humanity. Filmmakers used this paradox to grab the audience with violence and force them to confront it.
            Stein summarizes and analyzes the violence of Stanley Kubrick’s A Clockwork Orange, Terrence Mallick’s Badlands, and Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner. In an interesting way, he justifies Alex’s violence: “with violence comes passion and with that passion comes our ability to choose what we love, what we dare, who we want to be—our humanity.” He points out that Alex, played by Malcolm McDowell, is elfin and childlike, causing us to enjoy what he enjoys. Kubrick causes us to sympathize with this violent character. We want him to get out of jail and go through the treatment which eventually makes him a “clockwork orange.” Kubrick emphasizes that violence and free choice go hand in hand. It’s like burning the flag and democracy. The film forces you to acknowledge that violence is a part of human nature.
            With Badlands Stein argues that American violence is often a twisted version of success. The character Kit, roaming through the wilderness, feels he must kill people in order to survive. He also learns of his fame, possibly equating it with success. The audience is able to digest the violence and like the characters because of their romantic struggle. They are trying to be more human by killing people.
            Blade Runner’s violence is also justified by characters fighting for their humanity. Deckard is the robot because he has no choice of being a replicant hunter. Through violence, Deckard is able to regain his humanity by rediscovering feeling, mostly love pain, and fear. Stein also considers Robocop, Terminator, and Lethal Weapon's use of violence relative to individuals and the state.

Moskowitz (Kenneth), "The Vicarious Experience of A Clockwork Orange," Velvet Light Trap, Number 16, Autumn 1976.

    Moskowitz reiterates film’s ability to mentally condition its viewers by stating that seeing is close to doing and seeing film can seem the same as seeing real events although the film is unrealistic. He points out some technical devices that are used. The fast motion of the orgy is used to suggest the emotionless and clockwork nature of the participants. Also, Kubrick pairs up two scenes with slow motion as action/reaction: Alex’s attack on his droogs and him being attacked by them with the milk bottle.
For any art to evoke specific emotions it must sacrifice other elements, in this case: realism. The characters are sharply divided but all evil in their own ways. The film is unrealistic in its contrived situations, overplayed acting and ridiculous coincidences. But it’s still good because we understand how it relates to our reality’s bad qualities.
    Surprisingly, we see little violence. Kubrick either uses close-ups with narrative to intensify scenes or he focuses on other aspects of scene suggesting violence, leaving us to imagine it. The film lacks the blood and gore that critics claim is used to pander to sadistic viewers. Moskowitz also illustrates that lack of sensuality and ferocity in the Alex and Catlady murder scene. This is to show emotionless nature of Alex. The actual murder isn’t shown- the camera closes in on her face. Also, the rape of the writer’s wife isn’t shown. Instead Kubrick focuses on the husband watching it. Critics also say that the violence is meaningless. Kubrick counters that with the impact violence has on Alex. How can it be meaningless?
            The characters and society have become mechanized, especially the prison guards who strictly follow rules. The solution to being a mechanistic person is to exercise power of choice, which adds humanism. Ironically, Alex is the most human of all. What is even more ironic is when Alex is unable to act human he is called a True Christian.
         Alex draws the audience in with monologues and addressing them as his brothers. The viewer can then understand him and themselves better: they share a taste for violence, only his is much more developed. We watch him watch violence. There are also audiences in the movie that watch violence during the two stage scenes (rape of girl and Alex demonstration).
    Coupling technology with art can be both good and bad. He writes about the power of cinema and how it can be dangerous. Cinema can be more realistic than reality by using different filming techniques and the state uses that power to condition Alex, committing the worst crime of all: removing humanity by the destroying free will. At the end of the film, we hear Gene Kelly’s version of “Singing in the Rain.” We heard this before during the rape scene of the writer’s wife. If the power of film is what Kubrick shows it to be in this film, then the viewer will not be able to extricate Gene’s version from Alex’s. The film has altered our perception of the song and we are conditioned to think of violence. Alex’s Beethoven has become our Gene Kelly.
    Moskowitz goes on to point out other dangerous art in the film: nude females statues in the milk bar, use of bright, ugly colors. This shows that the culture of that society has fallen out. The art has no true meaning to people anymore. The Catlady acts like an expert on art, while her only non-pornographic or phallic piece of art is a bust of Beethoven, which she carelessly uses as a weapon. The film criticizes pseudo-art while highbrow critics categorize the film as such.

Evans (Walter), "Violence and Film: the Thesis of A Clockwork Orange," Velvet Light Trap, Number 13, Autumn 1974.

In this article Walter Evans argues that Stanley Kubrick’s thesis in A Clockwork Orange is the exact opposite of what moralist writers have said about it. He also discusses the film’s implications on free will while calling for reformation of society’s institutions. The writer makes a number of impressive points that help one understand the film better. First he quotes Pauline Kael, a writer for The New Yorker, who blames Kubrick and other moviemakers for creating a “new mood” for society. She states movies do not mirror reality as filmmakers claim. They desensitize us to violence and incorrectly shape our view of the world. However, the writer of the article impressively argues the opposite. Alex lives in a more violent future that Kubrick blames on failures of social institutions, not on movies shaping a “new mood.” He points out that movies are largely absent in the film. Family, school, the police, and the government are all weak in this film and can be attributed as the cause of a violent world. He points out each of these institutions failures while exonerating film. Then he goes even further by showing that film is indeed the savior of society through its use in the Ludovico technique whereby Alex is conditioned to avoid violent behavior through film and drugs. While moralists such as Kael claim that movies are negatively affecting our culture, Kubrick shows that only through extreme circumstances (forced, repeated viewing and drug effects) can movies affect our behavior. Even if normal viewing of films could modify our behavior, it would be wrong to censor it. That takes away our ability to choose. The writer also points out that art and religion would be pointless without violence and sex. The lessons of the Bible could not be taught without violence. To take away violence and sex from humans is dehumanizing.

The writer points out differences in the book and the movie. Burgess blames the scientific community for Alex’s transformation whereas Kubrick represents it as a political move. Kubrick also makes the prison Chaplain more pious, making the character more believable when he argues about an individual’s ability to choose good over evil.

Kael criticizes Kubrick for causing viewers to root for the brutal Alex. The writer, again, shows that things are not as they appear to be. We are not happy that Alex returns to violence in the end; we are pleased because he can choose evil or good.

The New Mythology of Crime

Learning Leadership - The Cinema as University

Bjorn Rombach and Rolf Solli, from the Goteborg University of Sweden, present, in this paper, an essential argument that, using The Godfather as a tool for reflection, is quite useful to be able to see how exactly leaders react in films. They begin with defining the three basic concepts of this mafia movie, which include “family, business, and violent crime,” while specifying that these should not be mixed.

Don Vito Corleone is the most significant character to be analyzed in the paper, and his actions are considered extensively with regards to the manner in which he leads. He is thoughtful, reprimanding, accusing, and forgiving. These are the qualities attributed to Don Vito that make him successful. His strength and ability to be stern make him a formidable opponent, all the while, a well-liked and well respected character because of his consideration for others and great emphasis on family values, old-fashioned and sexist though they may be. One of his greatest strengths is how well he knows people, which allows Don Vito to be more than a common gangster and a far better businessman, able to manipulate his opponents.

The article places great emphasis on decision-making with regards to the success of a leader. In Don Vito’s case, they use a model of rational decision making, as well as some specific examples, that depict Don Vito and very rational in his thought process, weighing the potential positive and negative outcomes of a given situation.

One of the more notable aspects of The Godfather is its rather slow pace in development. As this paper expresses, generally people appreciate quick paced films, but in this case it is the very slow movement that characterizes the film. This pace is underscored by the slow decision-making by Don Vito. The fact that he thinks things through, ultimately, makes him a better leader, and incredibly successful in the end as a result. By this film, slow pace and slow decisions are revered and rewarded as characteristics in a leader.

Map of School Shootings

A chronology of incidences of school violence involving youths.

Screening violence / edited and with an introduction by Stephen Prince.

Different essays written by different authors about the history of ultraviolence in movies, the aesthetics of ultraviolence, and the effects of ultraviolence. Includes a forward by Stephen Prince summarizing all three topics.

Violence in the media / Carol Wekesser, book editor.

Explores both sides of the following arguments: Does media violence harm society? Should it be censored? Can violence be effectively regulated? What should be done? Does music promote violence?

Shocking entertainment : viewer response to violent movies / Annette Hill.

A book about a relatively scientific study on the impact violence in movies has on society. Describes what exactly it feels like to experience a violent scene in a movie and how viewers relate to the characters. Then covers the topics of self-censorship and the morality question.

Screen violence / edited by Karl French.

A book that first explores who the audience for violent films are, such as children. Then categorizes the different kinds of violence such as gunfire or explosions or murder. Eventually wraps up with why violence in movies appeals to people.

Violence on the Screen - Glucksmann

A report on research into the effects on young people of scenes of violence in films and television. Examines not only the impact that movie violence has, but also the psychological determinants behind it. Very scientifically presented.

LexisNexis(TM) Academic - Violence and children create a volatile mix

San Antonio Express editorial calling for parents to monitor which movies their kids watch. Claims that violent movies, music, and video games lead to higher rates of aggressive behavior among children.

LexisNexis(TM) Academic - Violent movies, video games boost aggressive behaviour in children: study

Article about a British survey that says violence on TV, movies, and video games has a major short-term effect on young children, boosting the risk of aggressive behavior or fear. Also points out that there are other factors to take into consideration, such as violence in the home and the age of the child.

Bowling for Columbine (2002)

Michael Moore's documentary about America's gun culture. Explores possible reasons for this phenomenon, such as United States history, violence in the media, and political and business leaders. Also examines how communities are affected by school shootings.

Video Game Violence: A Review of the Emperical Literature 1998

Looks like an interesting review of tested video game theory

Affect of the Game Player: Short-Term Effects of Highly and Mildly Aggressive Video Games

Electronic reprint of 2 studies conducted at Rice University about the short-term effects violent video games. Concludes that violent video games increase aggression in the short-term. The more violent the video game the more detrimental the impact of the video game is.

Violent Video Games Lead To Brain Activity Characteristic Of Aggression

Short scientific article which discusses the findings of brain-imaging during exposure to violent video games. Proves the link between violent video games and aggression on a neurobiological level.

Violent Video Games: The Newest Media Violence Hazard

Thoughtful discussion of violence in video games. Also offers a comparison to violence in other forms of media. In particular, there is a rich discussion on why violent video games may have less of an impact on youths than other forms of media, and why video games may have a more ruinous impact than other media.

The effects of violent video games on aggression. Sherry 27 (3): 409 -- Human Communication Research

A comprehensive meta-analysis and statistical research project of all prior studies conducted about the effects of violent video games on aggression. Sherry is skeptical that violence in video games causes aggression and believes that more research is needed.

G4 - G4 Specials - Violence In Games

One-hour tv special that was originally aired on the G4 network. The program discusses the history of violence in video games ranging from "Death Race" (1976) to "Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas" (2005). The special examines both sides of the controversy regarding the effects of these games.

Empathy for the victim and sexual arousal among rapists and nonrapists

Study conducted comparing the empathy & sexual arousal of rapists and nonrapists. The study found that aggressors have less empathy for victims than non-aggressors. Alternatively, rapists are less empathetic than non-rapists.

Marine Corps Modeling and Simulation Management Office--Marine Doom

Describes the product, Marine Doom, a video game-like military simulator that was adapted from the popular video game, Doom II. This simulator "teaches concepts such as mutual fire team support, protection of the automatic rifleman, proper sequencing of an attack, ammunition discipline and succession of command."

Leonard Berkowitz--Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control

The book explains Berkowitz's Cognitive Neoassociation Model of Aggression. It proposes that when people are repeatedly exposed to aggression they create in their minds more detailed and interconnected aggressive thought networks. Exposure to aggression can trigger related feelings and can bring to mind knowledge of aggression-related skills, memories, and beliefs.

TIP: Theories

Explanation of Albert Bandura's social learning theory which essentially states that children learn what behaviors are appropriate and rewarding in a given situation through observation and reinforcement.

Current Events: Game over: Illinois Governor says some video games are too violent for teens

This article discusses Illinois's Governor Blagojevich's desire to ban the sale of violent video games to minors because he believes that they desensitize and contribute to kids becoming more violent.

Violence in video games : hearing before the Subcommittee on Telecommunications and Finance of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Third Congress, second session, June 30, 1994.

The statement of the American Medical Association discusses the effects of violence in various media types on youths. In video games, they focus on the problem of "role-modeling" and video games' capacity to potentially promote "real world" violence.

Masters of doom : how two guys created an empire and transformed pop culture / David Kushner.

The chapter "Straight out of Doom" discusses the influence of violent video games like "Doom" and whether or not they may be partially responsible for incidents like the Columbine High shootings of 1999.

Children in the digital age : influences of electronic media on development / edited by Sandra L. Calvert, Amy B. Jordan, and Rodney R. Cocking.

Provides a brief history of violent video games and discusses potential negative effects of violent video games. Also provides models and theories relating to the effects of Media Violence.

Stop teaching our kids to kill : a call to action against TV, movie & video game violence / Dave Grossman and Gloria DeGaetano.

Chapter 4, "It's Important to Feel Something When You Kill", discusses the evolution in violence in video games. It explains why violent video games are popular, addictive, and dangerous. Includes a very interesting section on video games as desensitizing killing simulators and military/law enforcement usage of them.

Trigger happy : videogames and the entertainment revolution / Steven Poole.

Chapter entitled "The Prometheus Engine" in part discusses military technology that is similar to video games. With wars being waged from increasingly great distances, they're fought and seen through video game-type graphic systems. Such technology turns killing into a "game".

Media Violence Research and Youth Violence Data: Why Do They Conflict? -- Olson 28 (2): 144 -- Academic Psychiatry

Professes that contrary to what the media may like you to believe, there is no substantial link between violent video games anf and real-life violence or crime. Also explains that further research is needed to support any conclusion

An Update on the Effects of Playing Violent Video Games

Provides a brief overview of existing research on the effects of violent video games. Reveals that exposure to viuolent games is linked to an increase in aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, and cardiovacular arousal. Also linked to a decrease in "helping" behavior.

Video Game Violence: A Review of the Emperical Literature 1998

Outlines what is known about the relationship between violent video games and aggression. Suggests that violent video games may lead to an increase in aggression, or violent behavior. Article is based on empiracle evidence and concludes that there is a need for more research in this discipline.

History of Violence in Video Games--Mortal Kombat (part I)

Discussion of the controversy surrounding Mortal Kombat

Video Games and Aggressive Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior in the Laboratory and in Life

Discussion of two scientific studies relating to the effects of violent video games. Compares the results of these two studies to popular behavior models. Results of both studies are consistent with "the General Affective Aggression Model, which predicts that exposure to violent video games will increase aggressive behavior in both the short term and the long term"

History of Violence in Video Games--Grand Theft Auto (part I)

Discussion of the violence in the video game, "Grand Theft Auto"

History of Violence in Video Games--Grand Theft Auto (part II)

Discussion of the violence in the video game, "Grand Theft Auto"

History of violence in video games--Death Race

Discusses the controversy surrounding the 1976 video game "Death Race"

When Two Tribes Go to War: A History of Video Game Controversy

Discussion of the history and evolution of violence in video games

Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions

Examination of the myths, facts, and unanswered questions relating to violence and video games

Does Playing Violent Video Games Cause Aggressive Behavior?

It is argued that exposure to violent video games causes aggressive behavior, desensitization to violence, belief in a "scary world", etc. Three types of evidence are commonly used to support these conclusions--correlational studies field studies, and laboratory experiments. This paper analyzes the experimental evidence that is used to support this argument.

Video Games & Violence Bibliography