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    Robert Stam's novel, Literature and Film, was extremely helpful in clarifying the issues that cloud the process of adapting a novel. I was particularly interested in the first chapter of the book, entitled "The Theory and Practice of Adaptation", because I was keen on exploring the issues that a director, screenwriter, and cinematographer must consider when adapting a book to film. Robert Stam touches on exactly these concerns. The subsequent chapters of the novel are written by a host of film experts, and touch on on specific adaptations in Hollywood history. But in Stam's chapter, he explains how the film medium inevitably changes the meaning of literary works; an idea that is important to the understaning David Lean's adaptation of Doctor Zhivago. Stam begins by introducing his reader to a phenomenon known as the "automatic difference" between the film media and the literary media. He claims that there are certain aspects of the transition from literature to film that will change the meaning of the story no matter how many measures are taken to remain loyal to the novel. For instance, Stam begins by acknowledging the cost limitations of filmmaking. He uses War and Peace as his prime example. Whereas Tolstoy simply utilized paper, a pen, and talent to write his story, the analogous film rendition would drain the pockets of its producers. Once these budgetary constraints are settled, there are still the issues of available talent, pressure from both studios and producers, censorship, and a host of other constraining factors. An additional factor also causes the film to diverge from the novel; while one man or woman writes a novel with a single vision in mind, a film is made by a crew ranging from as small as five to as large as several hundred people. Therefore, a film adaptation is often the combined vision of several people at once. Finally, Stam addressses the most important "automatic difference" of all, and this is simply the multitrack medium of film. While literature is a single-track medium involving only the written word, film has the ability to combine words, images, and music. Robert Stam uses a scene from Grapes of Wrath to better exemplify this idea. A passage from the novel describes Ma Joad sitting with an opened box of memorabilia, fingering through them one at a time. However, in John Ford's film adaptation, Ma Joad sits next to a fire while solemnlly looking through the box, and music plays in the background. Both of these changes drastically alter the meaning of the scene. Stam writes, "Thus nothing in the novel prepares us for the idea that Ma Joad will look at the memorabilia by the light of the fire, the reflections of which will flicker over her face...nor does the John Steinbeck [author] mention music, yet the Ford version features a melancholy accordion version of the song 'Red River Valley'". (Literature and Film, pg. 18). Therefore, Robert Stam attempts to convey to the reader the importance of objectively watching a film adaptation. Many times, people criticize a film's inability to capture the "essence" of a novel, but one must remember the great differences distinguish the literary media from the film media. Instead, viewers should ask themselves, "what does the film add to the adaptation?" After reading this chapter in Literature and Film, I was able to approach Doctor Zhivago under the same light.