Haddad, Wadi D. 2000, ‘Is the divide digital?’, Techknowlogia, March/April 2000,

pps. 5 – 6, viewed 23 July 2009,

<http://www.techknowlogia.org/TKL_active_pages2/CurrentArticles/main.asp?Fi leType=HTML&ArticleID=85>.

This article will inform my discussion on the Global Digital Divide and its relevance to development issues.  The Global Digital Divide, as defined in this article, is the gap between the ICT "haves" and "have nots."  However, this gap cannot only be defined by physical access to ICT tools, the concept must be broadened to include the gap between human knowledge and skills necessary to use these tools.  Thus Haddad focuses on the human capital side of the divide in addition to the technical disparities.

The importance of ICT in the global economy is also discussed in this piece. Today’s economy is global, high speed, knowledge-driven, and competitive. Without the proper ICT skills and knowledge to participate in economic endeavors, whole countries and groups within countries become marginalized.  This economic marginalization limits the possibilities for impoverished communities in the developing world to improve their situation in the age of globalization.  I will use this article to inform my discussion about the disadvantages that are created and/or exacerbated by lack of ICT tools and technical literacy.  Solving these problems pose significant challenges to development policy makers and local communities.

Block, W. 2004, "The "Digital Divide" Is Not a Problem in Need of Rectifying", Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 393-406.

This article provides a starkly different perspective on the digital divide than most of my other sources. As the title clearly suggests, Block does not believe that the digital divide is a problem at all. He challenges claims that limited access to ICT is detrimental to individuals and populations and posits that these claims suffer from the fallacy of proportionality, egocentricism, and economic illiteracy.

In terms of the proportionality argument against the digital divide, Block says that proportional representation is a utopian goal of egalitarians. Simply put, different segments of a given population have different interests, skills and goals and therefore achieving proportional representation in any human activity, including the use of computers, is impossible. He compares the digital divide to other "product" divides such as yachts. Block asks if wealthy individuals have more yachts than low-income individuals, shouldn’t we be concerned with the "yacht divide?" I find this to be a faulty comparison, because as I have seen in my other sources, ICTs are no longer considered luxury goods in today’s world. Technical literacy has become a necessity to participate in society at large. Block uses similar comparisons to challenge the global digital divide, as well as divides based on race, gender, etc.

Block takes a very libertarian approach to the digital divide. From this article, it is clear that he believes a "hands off" approach to the spread of ICT is the right one. I disagree with this view, but I find it a valuable perspective to discuss in order to have a balanced research paper. I believe the evidence is strong to counter Blocks claims, and the potential value of ICT to developing nations is clear.

 This is a very extensive text that covers a wide range of internet policy issues.  I will focus on two chapters specifically for this paper: Chapter 26 "Globalizing the logic of openess: open source software and the global governance of intellectual property" and Chapter 30 "Internet diffusion and the digital divide: the role of policy making and political institutions."

Chapter 26 will inform my discussion of the use of and debate surrounding open source software.  The author argues that the global economy dictates the dissemination of information and skills necessary to complete in the era of globalization. Thus corporate powers such as Microsoft, and national powers such as the US and Western Europe are dominating the spread of information and communication technologies to the disadvantage of developing nations.  Liscensing costs and copyright laws serve to protect the interests of wealthy elites and international finanical organizations, while those without access to relevant knowledge and skills fall farther behind.  It is argued here that open source software is a kew way, possibly the key way, to counteract these forces of globalization that contribute to the global digital divide.  Specifically the use of free and open source software in Africa is discussed as is the support for open source software offered by the United Nations and many non-governmental organizations.  This will be a key text for my analysis of the use of open source software.

Chapter 30 focuses on issues surrounding the digital divide and policies that impact it.  It focuses on four countries as case studies: Brazil, Estonia, Singapore and the US.  The aim of this chapter is to discuss what role political policy and institutions may have in addressing the digital divide.  The conclusion is that policy and leadership in a society can in fact impact the diffusion of ICT.  Additionally, as I have seen in my other sources, civil society groups and non-governmental organizations are also key players in addressing issues of ICT disparity.

 This work focuses on policy issues surrounding the implementation and use of ICT in development. It touches on various challenges facing policymakers in this arena, namely in terms of infrastructure investment, human capital development, and corporate policy in the context of economic globalization. It also discusses issues of sustainability and urbanization which affect the spread and use of ICT.  For my paper, I will focus on Chapter 15 "Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Emerging Markets: Venture Capital and Electronic Commerce for Development?".

This chapter focuses on the economic factors that impact the spread of ICT in developing countries.  The authors argue that the digital divide is real, and it is reinforced my may global economic factors, specifically those of free-market capitalism.  The authors argue that developing nations will not "leap frog" to economic development because of advancements in ICT, as has been assumed by many in recent years.  Due to various economic, social and cultural forces, development in these nations will be a long, slow and challenging road.  One major impediment to rapid development is a lack of physical and informational infrastructure in developing nations.  Without the adequate infrustructure to support long-term development projects, the process will be quite complicated.  This is a realistic view of development from an economic perspective.  I can use this piece to evaluate some of the GAID projects that I will be discussing in my paper, specifically those with large-scale corporate involvement.

 The Role of Language in the Internationalisation of Higher Education: an example from Portugal

VINCENT KERKLAAN, GILLIAN MOREIRA, KEES BOERSMA (2008)
European Journal of Education 43 (2) , 241–255

Discusses the increased need for Portuguese language instruction in an increasingly international University.

Wang, Shujen. “Recontextualizing Copyright: Piracy, Hollywood, the State, and Globalization.” Cinema Journal 43 (2003): 25-43.

Shujen Wang is a professor of media and film studies at Emerson College. In this article she discusses transnational copyright governance among other topics. Her analysis looks at the qualities of both copyright owners and users. In general she says that the state continues to play a prominent role in intellectual property (IP) and information technology (IT) policy making. In addition the consumer has an active role in their infringing use of copyrighted material. This is a general description of her task. More nuanced is how she employed three prominent experts in the field of sociology namely, Scott Lash, John Urry and Manuel Castells. Their views may coincide with Karnow’s about the structure of culture as it is today. The virtual reality or information structure is highly abstract and variable. Wang goes on to expand on this point and the need to examine these topics under the description of her task as mentioned prior. So these authors initially act as a backdrop for her task and sub sequentially remains a critical theme in her work.

Similarly, this article acts to compliment and expand on Karnow’s position. This is not only an information based culture; it is also that culture has become information.

Tae Kuen Kim, Karen Zurlo

International Journal of Social Welfare 0(0):080417070737075-??? (2008)

This is an overview of previous studies concerning the relationship between globalization and seeming decline in the welfare state.

 The Role of Language in the Internationalisation of Higher Education: an example from Portugal

VINCENT KERKLAAN, GILLIAN MOREIRA, KEES BOERSMA (2008)
European Journal of Education 43 (2) , 241–255

Discusses the increased need for Portuguese language instruction in an increasingly international University.

Democracy and Globalization

Barry Eichengreen and David LeBlang

Economics and Politics 2008

Continuing the study of the relationship between democracy and globalization, Eichengreen and LeBlang's study yields a positive correlation.

1. Introduction: Financialization and the World Economy (pdf)
Gerald A.Epstein
2. Costs and Benefits of Neoliberalism: A Class Analysis
Gerard Dumenil and Dominique Levy
3. The Rise of Rentier Incomes in OECD Countries: Financialization, Central Bank Policy and Labor Solidarity
Gerald A. Epstein and Arjun Jayadev

Part II: FINANCIALIZATION AND THE US ECONOMY

4. The Neoliberal Paradox: The Impact of Destructive Product Market Competition and ‘Modern' Financial Markets on Nonfinancial Corporation Performance in the Neoliberal Era
James Crotty
5. The Late 1990s' US Bubble: Financialization in the Extreme (pdf)
Robert R. Parenteau
6. Derivatives Markets: Sources of Vulnerability in US Financial Markets
Randall Dodd

PART III: FINANCIALIZATION AND THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM

7. Financial Globalization, Exchange Rates and International Trade
Robert A. Blecker
8. The Eurodollar Market and the New Era of Global Financialization
Edwin Dickens
9. The Role of the International Monetary System in Financialization
Jane D'Arista

PART IV: CASE STUDIES OF FINANCIALIZATION AND ECONOMIC CRISIS

10. The Rise of the New Money Doctors in Mexico
Sarah Babb
11. The Making of the Turkish Financial Crisis
Yilmaz Akyuz and Korkut Boratav
12. The Recent Crisis - and Recovery - of the Argentine Economy: Some Elements and Background (pdf)
Arturo O'Connell
13. International Liquidity and Growth Fluctuations in Brazil
Nelson H. Barbosa-Filho
14. The Causes and Consequences of Neoliberal Restructuring in Post-Crisis Korea
James Crotty and Kang-Kook Lee

PART IV: POLICY PERSPECTIVES

15. Averting Crisis? Assessing Measures to Manage Financial Integration in Emerging Economies
Ilene Grabel
16. Why International Capital Mobility Should be Curbed and How it Could be Done
David Felix
17. Applying a Securities Transactions Tax to the US: Design Issues, Market Impact and Revenue Estimates
Robert Pollin

Democracy and Globalization

Barry Eichengreen and David LeBlang

Economics and Politics 2008

Continuing the study of the relationship between democracy and globalization, Eichengreen and LeBlang's study yields a positive correlation.

LA Times

Mahler 1995

Authors:

Vasudevan, Ramaa^1,2

Source:

Monthly Review: An Independent Socialist Magazine; Apr2008, Vol. 59 Issue 11, p35-50, 16p, 1 chart, 1 graph

Globalization cuts both ways. Not only does it valorize the local in a cultural sense, it constructs the local as the tribal. Processes of geopolitical fragmentation give those in power even more room to manoeuvre. Glocalization involves the reallocation of poverty and stigma from above without even the residual responsibility of noblesse oblige. Geographical and social mobility are dichotomized; populations are refigured as tourists and vagabonds. Globalization thus reinforces already existing patterns of domination, while globalization indicates trends to dispersal and conflict on neo-traditional grounds. The privileged walk, or fly away; the others take revenge upon each other.

Key Words: fragmentation • globalization • glocalization • nation state • tribalization

"Power SHIFT." Hollywood Reporter -- International Edition; 11/18/2003, Vol. 381 Issue 18, pI1-I2, 2p, 1c

This article from the Hollywood Reporter talks about the globalization of the media industry and its implication on the American film industry.  Stephen Galloway begins with an analogy between ancient Rome and modern day Hollywood stating that “empires crumble.”  Galloway’s actual argument however in no way implies that Hollywood will be worse off from current trends of foreign advancement and globalization.

India, China, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, and Russia are mentioned and briefly analyzed as regions which exemplify dramatic expansion and growth in this modern age.  Galloway also takes note that these regions are responsible for creative ideas which Hollywood licenses for remake rights.

The changing trends in foreign countries are not limited to productions of movies, but Galloway shows how US movies are being increasingly invested by foreign investors.  Quoting Walt Disney Studios chairman Dick Cook, Galloway points to the fact that Hollywood is focusing on the world market, both for investment and distribution.  Gone are the days of ‘splendid isolation,’ however it seems as though the future and profits of Hollywood seem bigger and better than ever.

This pertains to my thesis as evidence of the recent globalization of Hollywood.  This world view of remakes, foreign investment, and world wide distribution would not be possible without the current implementation of international copyright law.  Since the US joined the Berne Convention in 1989, legal globalization has exploded with all parties benefiting from the interaction.

Hollywood was no stranger to employing immigrant talent by this time, and Billy Wilder himself had fled Nazi Europe. Hepburn left Holland for similar reasons. Though many of Wilder's film deal with internationalism, their meanings can be laced with ambiguity, perhaps because of Wilder's own conflicted personal history (his family had died in concentration camps.) These ambiguities echo weightier political and cultural questions.

Smith notes that foreign starlets like Hepburn were celebrated in this time period, but the most famous males were mostly American. Indeed, Bogart was known for his ruggedly American role in Casablanca. This gendering goes back to the reconfiguring of the May-December romance into a symbol for the triumph of American culture in Europe.

Smith traces the history of competition between Hollywood and the French cinema, arguing that the Larrabees' business in Sabrina reflexively mirrors America's "cowboy-style" business tactics. Sabrina's time in Paris teaches her feminine skills that make her attractive for American consumption, and because Sabrina must be out of the way for David Larrabee to marry into the sugarcane business, Linus's courtship with her is originally just another business move for the greater good. When asked why the merger is necessary, Smith quotes Linus, painting America as a postwar savior: "So a new industry goes up in an underdeveloped area and once barefooted kifs have shoes, washed faces, and their teeth fixed." American commodities, as in the Kitchen Debate, came to signify American superiority.

Once Sabrina remakes herself, she becomes an object for men to possess and exchange, sometimes without her knowing it. Smith points to Sabrina's enigmatic and changing class status as a symbol of the promise Americanization would hold for postwar Europe.  Though initially reading a political agenda into this fairy tale story might seem like a bit of a stretch, Smith makes a convincing argument that might apply to many films of the age, when Hollywood was selling not just movies, but the American way of life.

In this article, author Joseba Gabilondo discusses Steven Spielberg’s three highest grossing movies: Jaws, E.T., and Jurassic Park. Each of these three movies shares something in common with the others – non-human protagonists. Gabilondo addresses the influences of these three characters and how Hispanic and world cultures are affected by the globalization of Spielberg’s “monsters.”

Gabilondo begins with a discussion about how the shark, alien, and dinosaur, all seem to dominate the other characters in Jaws, E.T., and Jurassic Park, respectively. Furthermore, he points out that the main characters tend to be “white, masculine, heterosexual Anglo-American.” Consequently, when these characters eventually expose of or send away the associated “monster,” the stereotypical role reemerges in the spotlight of the film.

The effect of this process, Gabilondo writes, “...is a globalization that parallels that of America’s neo-imperialist supremacy.” For example, the shark in Jaws could be reduced to just a national problem (“man against nature”), thus excluding other nations from the situation. However, the alien in E.T. is most certainly a problem that must be applied globally. Finally, Jurassic Park actually takes place outside of the U.S., portraying Spielberg’s eventual globalization of his “monsters.”

According to Gabilondo, Jaws was not intended for audiences abroad as much as Spielberg’s later films, which is a logical conclusion because as he gained more experience and success, Spielberg was able to expand his horizons and produce movies with global appeal.

This article discusses the globalization of companies.  It looks at the effects of the sports market on a global scale.  The article looks to the past to track the movement of globalization and how sports has added to the wide-scale market.