Summary:

This historic collective “Statement on Sound”, initiated and composed by Eisenstein and endorsed by the other two prominent Soviet filmmakers (Pudovkin and Alexandrov), first appeared in 1928. The ”Statement” opens up with an acknowledgement that the progress in the technical development of Soviet sound-film was slow, but it nevertheless proceeds to lay out some theoretical principles about the relationship of sound to the visual images. It reiterates the basic standpoint of early Soviet filmmakers about cinema as a separate and distinct form of art from the theatre and then goes on to suggest that sound movies should follow a continuous line of development out of the silent cinema. The trio emphasized the need to develop a sound montage “along the line of its distinct non-synchronization with the visual images”, and through a metaphor of music, asserted that “only a contrapuntal use of sound in relation to the visual montage piece” will afford new possibilities for montage development and perfection, eventually creating “an orchestral counterpoint of visual and aural images” (258). In Eisenstein’s words, this contrapuntal method of constructing the sound-film had a potential to bring the significance of the international cinema to an unprecedented power and cultural height.

Evaluation & Analysis:

Because the “Statement” was written before the arrival of sound to the Soviet Union, this document, by placing the problem within a larger context, is crucial for understanding Eisenstein’s theory of sound cinema. The theoretical standards laid out here are essential in creating a framework for analytical assessment of the interplay between the audio and visual forms in Eisenstein’s first sound movie Alexander Nevsky and they will be also useful in the investigation of the Eisenstein-Prokofiev collaboration. The Eisenstein-Pudovkin-Alexandrov manifesto advocates an organic unity of sound cinema - a conflux of audio and visual forms, where the sound is intentionally non-synchronized with the visual images. The preferred contrapuntal use of sound would effectively reduce the role of language in the sound cinema and consequently prevent commercial exploitation of the “talking movies”. According to Eisenstein, cinema was supposed to be first and foremost an international language and he was concerned that language-based cinema markets would undermine the international prominence enjoyed by the Soviet cinema at the time.  In other words, in the “Statement”, Eisenstein sought to extend the fundamentals of silent cinema into sound cinema and Alexander Nevsky could be therefore regarded as the first test of his own theories.

Hughes introduces the relationship between music and film by comparing his film score to that of Eisler’s. Eisler puts more emphasis on the foreground of music. He states Sergei Eisenstein’s theory as a good starting point to the overall interaction of the two forms. Eisenstein believed that different media established a connection based on shared emotional qualities through collision rather than equivalence. He did not believe in equating the two media form because the fundamental properties of visual art and audio art are “unalike.” Eisenstein introduced a higher form of montage with the idea that visual shots corresponded with “musical movement.” For example, a shot drawing the eyes downward would be complemented by a descending chord combination. Hughes continues with an explanation of film and music relationship in Eisler’s Rain. He concludes that the sense that there is a connection between music and picture comes from an extension of the sense of motion, generated by interactions between the media. The problem that arises here is the possibility of assigning a musical structure with an unrelated visual sequence. This problem arises from the difference between filmic modernism (clarity) and musical modernism (self-reflective symbolism).

“Fantasia,” fundamentally about the relationship between music and sound, utilizes Eisenstein’s idea of “musical movement.” A perfect example is the “Nutcracker Suite” sequence. Mystical fairies, such as the ice fairies skating on the frozen lake, create a kind of dance through their interactions with nature that perfectly interprets the music’s “movement.” Nevertheless, Disney did not take into account the likely collision of the two forms. Beethoven’s Pastoral and its corresponding mythical, Greek animation exemplify the inappropriate sound-image connection that Hughes would like to avoid. Overall, “Fantasia” seems to have moments of brilliance and moments of musical butchery. In its grace, the film captures the synchronization of music and sound on screen creating flowing unity. However, the abuse of musical art in “Fantasia” demonstrates its producers’ artistic disqualification. A good example of Eisenstein musical movement theory, the film is a technological artifact, but cannot be esteemed for its artistic innovation.

English, Horace B. “’Fantasia’ and the Psychology of Music.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 2.7 (Winter, 1942-1943): 27-31. Blackwell. JSTOR. Van Pelt Library Philadelphia, PA. 30 Nov 2008.

English reminds the reader that the combining music and dramatic production is an old technique. Therefore, there has always been music that was written to accompany drama. Such music is composed around the story in order to enhance it. Some of the pieces in “Fantasia” were written as such, and therefore Disney’s visual accompaniment does not destroy the music. On the other hand, most of the sequences in “Fantasia” use the music as the base and write the story around the music, ignoring the inherent differences between visual forms and musical forms. He explains this by describing man’s relationship to sound. Sounds have become abstractions and carry an infinite variety of plastic meanings. There is no fixed meaning of a musical sound. On the other hand, the eye is an organ of reality meaning that what is seen—painted, written, pictured, etc.—holds far more acceptability than what is heard. “Seeing, not hearing, is believing,” he asserts. He says that when we are really responding to music, we are creating something unique and individual; and at the moment of such creation, anyone else’s response, be it ever so beautiful, is only a distraction and an annoyance.

This article exemplifies one of the biggest critiques of “Fantasia:” mixing two forms of art inappropriately. According to English’s view on music, Disney ends up annoying the viewer with this combination rather than impressing him. In the context of “Fantasia’s” purpose, English seems to take the repercussions of the sound-image relationship too far. Disney wanted to expose lower-class audiences to the mysteries of classical music while demonstrating his talent in animation. However, with an intellectual mindset, the viewer sees the images as “a distraction and an annoyance.” Disney thus succeeded in entertaining his uneducated viewer, but he could not gain approval of intellectuals. English describes music, which is not written around a story, is an art form of its own. As such, artistic music provokes individual emotions that should not be normalized as they are in “Fantasia.” Unfortunately, Disney’s attempt failed to consider the musical characteristics that were the cause of much critique. As an entertainer, Disney seems to be doing the job with this film. On the other hand, as an artist, Disney overlooks fundamental aspects of art. Disney’s lack of basic artistic comprehension contributes to “Fantasia’s” failure as a work of art.

This is the original Three Little Pigs Silly Symphony; its duration is 8:23. It features the Three Little Pigs and the Big Bad Wolf, as well as the famous song "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?" According to a few sources, the heavily Jewish image and accent of the Wolf knocking on the brick house's door was removed for the DVD release, but it seems that this revised voice was applied to the YouTube video, even though the visual was not adjusted.

Having easy, unlimited access to the film which is the subject of my research is essential, not only for being able to form a thesis but for being able to interpret and synthesize the various resources I'll find on the subject. I can draw direct evidence as to the narrative structure, characterization, and use of color, music, and sound, and hear the song "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?" whenever I please.

This book is an enormous print compilation of Disney sketches and animated stills accompanied by text discussing early animation, its principles and appeal, the procedure of putting animation on the screen, character development, animating expressions and dialogue, acting, and other aspects of the technical and nitty-gritty details of how animation works. On page 292, in the Music and Sound section, it devotes an entire page to an example of how composed music and sound effects were synched with the animation. The example is from Three Little Pigs, and includes a sketch of the pig who built with straw running towards his home to take refuge from the wolf.

Beside the sketch are two strips, or "exposure sheets," which show how the pig's movements and actions change with time using little thumbnail sketches along paper with divisions representing time on screen. The main accents of the scene, such as going through the door, slamming the door, opening the door, pulling in the Welcome mat, and closing the door once more are shown along the strips, placed according to which frame contains the action. Where each measure of music falls is notated along the strips as well, and the swelling or dropping off of the line of action through the frames must resonate with the music synched with the film. This is a perfect example of the meticulous detail and effort put in by Disney animators that imparted quality to the resulting films and gave the studio a competitive edge.

The document is a primary source, and a perfect example of the care and extra work put in by Disney employees that is discussed in other sources. It gets into the detail of exactly how the amazing feats Disney studios was able to achieve were performed, and Three Little Pigs is a great example of the effective use of synchronized sound. This illustration, and the accompanying discussion, helps me prove that sound effects and music were part of what made Three Little Pigs so astounding. In addition, this book is almost a bible, filled with details of the animating process which would help me gather background information to discuss other aspects of my argument such as illustration and other animation methods which helped in characterization, as well as color and photography methods.

    Brophy identifies the Disney Company as important, first and foremost, for its inventions, devices, and processes that have defined and refined animation as we know it. Disney constructs cinematic totality with the interaction between image and sound. Regarding Disney productions, Brophy defines musical composition as an organic life force and image as an artificial life force. Disney’s fusion of the two leads them to distil each other, to effect a symbiotic relationship emphasizing synchronization. The sound cartoon world, he explains, is one where every mark and squiggle is energized by rhythm, vibrating in reaction to the soundtrack. Brophy suggests that “Fantasia” honors the organic life of music to which the trickery of animated imagery could only aspire. An example of the symbiotic relationship between sound and image, “The Sorcerer’s Apprentice,” shows how the orchestra conductor directs music while experiencing it. The experience and the direction determine each other. The real versus the dream-like are evoked in Mickey’s dream sequence. The passage demonstrates that music’s relationship with time is always relative. One’s reaction depends on what precedes and follows the sound. “A World is Born” is a commentary on the whole illusion of life which we infer from the preceding voice-over narration that delivers a literal content. Stravinsky’s score expresses a violence of rhythm, which Brophy links to barbaric behavior and reproductive and procreative activity (the juxtaposition of orchestral bursts and erupting volcanoes represents the phallic thrust of creation). Disney’s animated shorts and features manipulate sound-image relationship to mobilize narrative construction and our place within the text.

    Music’s relationship with time explains the conductor metaphor that he can control a piece’s direction during his performance, but can never fundamentally alter it. The conductor thus never redefines music in any other temporal context but his own. The conductor, symbolizing the producer in the context of film, is given the opportunity to place the audience within his “text” to create a specific perceived narrative of sound within one sole context. The Nutcracker Suite in “Fantasia” is proof that associations and interpretations are all relative. In this sequence music is depicted by fantasy and nature. Coincidentally, it never alludes to the theme of Christmas for which the soundtrack was originally composed. The film therefore illustrates the myriad possibilities in musical direction while inferring that interpretation is contingent only on time. Brophy’s theory on the relationship between image, sound, and time proves Disney’s artistic intentions to simply sway the audience in a certain direction. Unfortunately, the animation, like that of the erupting volcanoes for example leaves no room for individualized creativity because it so clearly defines the action. Though the synchronization of music and this particular animation does not intrinsically harm the musical pieces, it does devalue them as art in the temporal medium of “Fantasia.” By falsely directing such musical manipulation, “Fantasia” significantly decreases its own artistic value.

The animated short Three Little Pigs is the focus of this paper; the author claims that this short was significant first for epitomizing the quality of Disney films in the 1930s, whose popularity can't be conceived of today. In addition, the author sees the film as crucial in character animation, paving the way for the enduring characters of the next decade. The narrative, indirectly, and the commercial success, more directly, enabled Disney's first feature-length animated film, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.

The article also discusses the technical achievements of the film, such as the difficulty in animating such similar characters and the effective use of color. The latter innovation, color, was used most effectively by including subtle tone changes with purpose, such as to reinforce the exhaustion of the wolf after trying to blow down the brick house by changing the colors of his face. Finally, sound was key to the film's success and influence. Written to illustrate a song that became a hit, "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?", the music helps differentiate characters. The character development was further aided by focusing on four characters, instead of the huge undifferentiated masses often featured in earlier Silly Symphonies.

Finally, the article addresses the metaphor of the story as two-pronged. The popularity of the film suggests the dormant, hopeful message that hard work alone will allow men to prevail even in times of doubt; this was an appealing message in the Depression. Second, audiences saw Walt Disney as a role model. It's possible that simple plots, like that of this short, helped Disney films maintain popularity over competing Warner Brothers series which today seem more appealing.

This article is key to my argument; it helps provide evidence that Three Little Pigs paved the way for Snow White and the future Disney style of creating feature-length films with the same character development, simple plots and positive, moral underlying messages that appealed to audiences.

Cook, David A. A History of Narrative Film. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996.

In Chapter 8 of A History of Narrative Film, Cook analyzes the effects of the introduction of the sound film into the American studio system.  He asserts that the emergence of sound drastically changed the makeup of Western cinema.  Cook discusses the development and popularity of the musical film genre that came about during this time as a result of sound film technology.  He also discusses the added potential for realism enabled by the sound film, such as in the urban gangster films with their tough vernacular speech and distinctive “rat-a-tat-tat” of the Thompson submachinegun.

Cook maintains that the existing genre of the horror film was the most greatly enhanced by the addition of sound.  He alleges that sound not only enabled eerie effects to make the films’ horror elements more effective, but it also allowed horror films to retain the depth of literary dialogue present in so many of their original sources.  He attributes the success of Dracula (1931) to the boons offered by the sound film.

This article is a review and discussion of four newly released double-disc sets in the “Walt Disney Treasures” series.  The discs contain Silly Symphonies, and the author discusses how Disney used technology to gain a competitive edge over the Fleischers.  Disney took more care in music and sound editing and synching, using a technique which enabled animators to listen to already-recorded music and effects and animate in synch with these soundtracks, while the Fleischers’ sound seems more like improvisation.  And Disney signed an exclusive contract, giving him the only rights to use a new three-color Technicolor process that gave his films a “visual pop” unlike any others available. 

This article discusses the technical care and expertise put into Disney short films.  The article argues that the color, shading, draftsmanship, depth techniques, and expressivity of movement eventually used in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs were first used in Silly Symphonies like The Goddess of Spring and Three Blind Mouseketeers.  The author also discusses the differences between Walt Disney’s television persona and behind-the scenes “persistent dissatisfaction,” claiming that whichever one considers, Disney’s efforts edged the country towards “greater technological feats.”

This article, while it does not mention Three Little Pigs explicitly, helps fill in some information about how Disney managed to employ technology to his favor, and the details of some of that technology, especially color and sound.  It also shows how the Silly Symphonies served in some cases as proving grounds for new techniques that eventually emerged in full-length animated features, and echoes an often-expressed belief in Walt Disney’s quest for perfection through bigger and better technology. 

Warner Brothers. "The Exorcist: The Sound of Silence." 1973, 2000. 10 May 2008 <http://theexorcist.warnerbros.com/cmp/silencebottom.html>.

This webpage offers the perspectives of many contributors to the soundtrack of The Exorcist.  There are several instances of the unique mechanisms used to convey the unusual sound effects.

For example, Friedkin stresses the use of sonic contrast throughout the film.  He wanted to use sound to match the extreme visual shifts onscreen, such as that between light versus dark.  This creates a “startle effect”, where sound functions as a weapon that penetrates the audience with sudden assaultive effects, unpredictably followed by a surrounding quiet.  Perfectly capturing this is the scene where the traumatizing noises of the x-ray machine suddenly disappear into thin air.  The screen blacks out, making the moment much more intense.   

In addition, many examples of diegetic sound exist throughout the film.  In the opening scene, which displays countless workers digging in the rubble of the Iraqi desert, the sound of the axes hitting the rocks simultaneously occurs with the echoing sound that is produced.  Apparently, Friedkin checked this scene over one hundred times in order to ensure its accuracy, in hopes of creating the most realistic soundspace possible.

Friedkin also perfected the voice of the demon.  Initially, he tinkered with the combination of Blair’s voice and that of a male.  However, the synthesized result sounded too fake.  He resorted to calling an old friend—Mercedes McCambridge—in order to create a more convincing demonic tone.  She went to great lengths to try and produce the most horrific noises; she chain smoked, swallowed raw eggs, and even tied herself to a chair, among other things.  Eventually, her painful sounds were combined with frequencies of angry bees and slaughtered pigs to produce the relentless devil within Regan.          

Overall, Buzz Knudson was responsible for bringing together all of these sounds and inserting them into a continuous flow.  Hundreds of different sound experts were called in to contribute to even the smallest auditory effects.  Artists would experiment with atonal beats using materials like crystal stemware, old leather wallets, and pencils.  The track took over fifteen weeks to make, though most movies took around six weeks.  Indeed, the film had brilliant sound engineering.

Part of the success of The Exorcist must be credited to the work of the sound production team.  Sound functions as a storytelling element, becoming just as important as the visuals when it comes to horror filmmaking.  Buzz Knudson pioneered the use of new ideas and technologies; he was able to blend in music with the background—never dominating a scene—yet subtly building up its intensity.  His immense efforts were crucial in portraying the evil nature of the devil, certainly shocking audiences across the nation.

Blyn, Robin. "Imitating the Siren: West’s The Day of the Locust and the Subject of Sound." Literature/Film Quarterly (Salisbury State Univ., Salisbury, MD). Vol. 47, No. 4 (2004), pp.51-59. Literature Online – Criticism and Reference. 9 Apr. 2008. .

This article discusses the ways in which Nathaniel West’s The Day of the Locust is indebted to the history of cinema, and even partially to the Hollywood Cinema that it critiques, for the success of the novel. Blyn continually returns to the theme of the sound of the siren at the end of the film as an allusion to the siren song of mythology. She contextualizes the use of sound in cinema and how in times of technological change, such as following the rise of sync-sound in films, an upheaval occurs in which manifestations of the earlier cinema of attractions arise. She goes on to differentiate between the techniques of cinema of attractions (most notably the “teaser” technique) and how these very techniques are used to disrupt the continuity of reality in the book. The duplicity of the laugh, first exhibited by Harry before his death and most dramatically utilized by Homer after he loses control, as well as disjointed sound serve as methods to disrupt the sense of realism by inhibiting character identification and narrative absorption. As realistic immersion is a staple of Hollywood cinema, it appears that the methods with which West critiques Hollywood are separate from the institution itself.

This article is interesting as it examines the paradox of the novel’s apparent dependence upon that which it critiques. However, following the adaptation of the novel to film, this paradox becomes even more difficult. While the novel may or may not depend on certain narrative techniques and conventions shared with Hollywood, the film most assuredly depends on Hollywood institution as it was produced by a major studio. Whereas the novel remains separate and independently produced, the film assuredly requires involvement in the system and elements of artifice which it critiques. Various Academy awards had already been won by those involved (Conrad Hall, John Schlesinger). Ultimately, the article does not explain the use of a Hollywood film to critique Hollywood culture, but it sheds light on the matter as it confronts the similar paradox of the dependence of a novel to the subject it critiques in terms of technique and convention.

Blyn, Robin. "Imitating the Siren: West’s The Day of the Locust and the Subject of Sound." Literature/Film Quarterly (Salisbury State Univ., Salisbury, MD). Vol. 47, No. 4 (2004), pp.51-59. Literature Online – Criticism and Reference. 9 Apr. 2008. .

This article discusses the ways in which Nathaniel West’s The Day of the Locust is indebted to the history of cinema, and even partially to the Hollywood Cinema that it critiques, for the success of the novel. Blyn continually returns to the theme of the sound of the siren at the end of the film as an allusion to the siren song of mythology. She contextualizes the use of sound in cinema and how in times of technological change, such as following the rise of sync-sound in films, an upheaval occurs in which manifestations of the earlier cinema of attractions arise. She goes on to differentiate between the techniques of cinema of attractions (most notably the “teaser” technique) and how these very techniques are used to disrupt the continuity of reality in the book. The duplicity of the laugh, first exhibited by Harry before his death and most dramatically utilized by Homer after he loses control, as well as disjointed sound serve as methods to disrupt the sense of realism by inhibiting character identification and narrative absorption. As realistic immersion is a staple of Hollywood cinema, it appears that the methods with which West critiques Hollywood are separate from the institution itself.

This article is interesting as it examines the paradox of the novel’s apparent dependence upon that which it critiques. However, following the adaptation of the novel to film, this paradox becomes even more difficult. While the novel may or may not depend on certain narrative techniques and conventions shared with Hollywood, the film most assuredly depends on Hollywood institution as it was produced by a major studio. Whereas the novel remains separate and independently produced, the film assuredly requires involvement in the system and elements of artifice which it critiques. Various Academy awards had already been won by those involved (Conrad Hall, John Schlesinger). Ultimately, the article does not explain the use of a Hollywood film to critique Hollywood culture, but it sheds light on the matter as it confronts the similar paradox of the dependence of a novel to the subject it critiques in terms of technique and convention.

Beck, Jay. “Citing the Sound.” Journal of Popular Film and Television Winter 2002.
    http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0412/is_4_29/ai_82779441/pg_4

The sound in The Conversation was nominated for Best Sound at the 1975 Academy Awards. While most of the sound production in the 1960s was remnant of the studio systems original sound technology, this film pushed sound production into a new era by exploring new ways to integrate sound into film. Since the central character’s job is to manipulate film, sound plays an important role. The soundtrack is a driving factor of the plot in its case, and it required the viewers to integrate their viewing experience with their listening experience. Films in the 1970s embraced “anti-realistic” tactics such as grainy film stock and lens flares, and this trend continued into sound in Coppola’s film. He used the sound to drive the narrative, which was a relatively new concept, only preceded by Antonioni’s film Blow Up. Influential sound producers defied the typical Hollywood hierarchy by running the production team democratically and allowing free experimentation in sound techniques. The problem with the technique of driving the movie with sound was that audiences were not used to integrating sound into a visual field. Harry not only provides a narrative for his films through the recorded conversation, he basically mixes the soundtrack throughout the film, acting as a sound mixer. A powerful aspect of the sound production is the “audio-zoom”, where the sound increases as the camera zooms into a crowd. The sound echoes what an eavesdropper would hear, it picks up on important conversations throughout the crowd. The sound relays Harry’s mental state to the viewer, and is heard from his perspective. The sound is not a redundancy of the actions on the screen; it is a complement to the action. The deconstruction of sound production in the 1970s was a result of the rebellion of directors to the studio system, but soon Dolby would standardize sound and mixing techniques and end the period of experimentation. 

Dolby is the sound technology responsible for enhancing the audio portion of movies.  Star Wars is the film with which we associate Dolby's first major sound breakthrough.  This innovative technology created the sound of the Millenium Falcon "whooshing" over the heads of the audience (in Star Wars Episode IV).  Dolby has heightened the quality of what we hear in movies since the pivotal 1997 Star Wars film.  This article demonstrates that the enjoyment of the visual as well as the audio aspect of film has been revolutionized by the introduction of Dolby sound. 

Bill Jasper, chief executive of Dolby laboratories, has set out to expand Dolby's markets and solve the financial problems the company has been experiencing in the past several years.  When Dolby gave its input to the original Star Wars movie, the sound quality changed the industry and wowed audiences.  However, today, it takes a lot more to impress a jaded consumer.  Advanced technology permeates our everyday lives and it is a constant struggle to stay ahead.  With the current push for digital cinema, it would appear to present an opportunity for Dolby to command the market.  However, the industry will not accept "a Dolby proprietary system."  The industry demands an "open" system.  Dolby's solution is to work on better compression.  That is something the company could sell.  Dolby has done a significant amount of work to showcase technological innovations for Disney in the new film Chicken Little.  However, installation of new technology is not the mark for which Dolby wants to be known.  Instead, CEO Bill Jasper wants to sell "mastering technology and theater hardware."  Dolby currently has stiff competition from several other companies, but was faced with a similar scenario when digital audio was introduced.  Today, Dolby has eighty percent of that market. 

Dolby is a company whose success and profitability is dependent on innovation.  Star Wars Episode IV-A New Hope was a revolutionary film partly due to Dolby's audio contributions.  Dolby is looking to the future, hoping to realize similar success in the visual market.