Wetmore Jr., Kevin J. “Modern Japanese Drama in English.” Asian Theatre Journal 23.1 (2006): 179-205.

This article discusses the modernization of Japanese dramatic mediums. In the late 19^th century with the advent of the Meiji Restoration, Japan was opened up to the west politically, economically, and culturally. The conceptual challenge to Japanese theatre brought about the opposing strategies to either renovate traditional theatre or to implement entirely western models. Initially an attempt was made to maintain the traditional forms through the former path, including the reinvention of kabuki with shin-kabuki or “new kabuki” and then later with Shimpa or “New School” which incorporated Western storylines and playwrights with the traditional style and acting of kabuki theatre. Eventually, however, these failed attempts transitioned into a full application of Western models in the early 1900s with shingeki or “new theatre.” This new style marks a complete rejection of tradition, both in the realm of theatre but also in the greater context of Japanese cultural heritage. Shingeki placed emphasis on naturalism and realism, indicating its adherence to modernism. The American occupation between 1945 and 1952, however, brought about a new attitude towards Western views, translating as well into the now established new theatre styles. In the 1960s, the U.S.-Japan Mutual Security Treaty crisis of 1960 brought about the formation of a new form developed going by many names, including angora or “underground,” post-shingeki,” and shE gekijE undE or “Little Theatre Movement.” This new form attempted to reconnect with the lost traditions of the pre-modern Japan. The last thirty years show a growth in “modern pluralism,” blending modern and traditional techniques, including the English versions of many works. The author goes on to state that despite such reforms few modern Japanese artists, directors, actors, etc., receive much attention in English.

This article relates to my film because it deals with modernism and the translation of Japanese drama outside of the island. Kurosawa’s film is unique in its modern perspectives and narrative techniques, and its influence across the globe is seen in many contexts. Akutagawa Ryunosuke’s short story is mentioned in the article as an English playwrights using Japanese source material, and the film has influenced many remakes and reinterpretations, such as the films Vantage Point and The Usual Suspects.

    The article “No Jade, No Peonies” by James Kelly appeared in the New York Times November 30, 1952. It is an introductory review to the translation of Ryunosuke Akutagawa’s book No Jade, No Peonies: Rashomon and Other Stories. The article focuses mainly on Akutagawa the writer rather than his specific works; though the story “Into the Grove” is focused upon. It is cited for its significance as the basis for Akira Kurosawa’s film Rashomon released the year before and accordingly the reason for Akutagawa’s recognition abroad.

The other works cited in this project focus on Kurosawa’s perspective on the story “Into the Grove” into his film Rashomon, and stress the director’s interest in the human use of facade to gain self-affirmation and thereby happiness. Overall, Kurosawa’s outlook on humanity is a positive one rather than inherently bad. Kelly, however, describes Akutagawa as quite different in his attitudes toward man. With “Into the Grove,” for example, Akutagawa was exercising a study in human “deceit, treachery, and heartlessness.” What are pitiable, indulgent lies to Kurosawa would be proofs of man’s innate wickedness to Akutagawa. This illumination between the source material and adaptation, therefore, is particularly interesting to a study of the film Rashomon. The dissimilar translation of the story from paper to film ironically fits rather well with a narrative concerned solely with individual perspective. The strict moralistic tones of Akutagawa still resonate within the film’s story, however, and it would be intriguing to study how both the filmmaker and original author complement each other. The two seem to share common traits despite their aesthetic leanings. Kurosawa attempted suicide, and Akutagawa died by suicide at the age of 35. The examination of the man Akutagawa helps illuminate Akira Kurosawa by association and also his film adaptation Rashomon.