p. 78 "The cultural data of phonograph records was importantly a matter of representation....In many respects it was their physical quality as standardized, mass-produced goods taht helped to enforce their quality as specific cultural data, even as the culture they representd proved variable and unspecific in the extreme....What I am suggesting is that phonograph records frequently proved transgressive of the very cultural categories that they helped to represent as distinct or specific."

on "ethnic" records see Lizbeth Cohen (1990, 105), Victor Greene (1992) 

The thesis of this article is that for the major recording labels to stay atop the music industry, they will have to embrace both technological and creative risks.

They will need to find ways to reach more users via the internet. Until recently, recording companies have viewed the internet as the enemy rather than an opportunity. They have gone with the strategy of litigating the fans that use peer to peer networks instead of finding a sustainable business model that will put their content online. As a result, sales decreased by a fifth between 1999 and 2003.

More recently, however, the recording industry has made inroads to accepting that the internet and digital technology will shape the music industry’s future. Apple’s iTunes service proved to music executives that the legal download market is viable. With this realization, recording companies are trying to figure out how to change their business model to take advantage of the internet.

Another problem which is just as important as piracy is the recording companies’ inability to develop new artists into strong sustainable brand names. The emphasis on one hit wonders is also to blame for the decline in CD sales. In fact, an internal report at one of the major recording studios found that between 2/3 and ¾ of the decline in CD sales was unrelated to online piracy. By embracing the internet, which bypasses more conservative retailers, the recording companies could gain the confidence to support new, innovative music.

Additionally, when an online business model unfolds, higher quality artists will be more profitable. Currently people buy single tracks much more often than whole albums. However, it is in the recording studios interest for users to spend 12$ on a whole album from one artist than to buy 2 songs from 6 different artists.

Importance to Thesis:

This article is important to my thesis in that it helps highlight the strategic mistakes that recording companies are repeating in response to peer-to-peer networks.  Music companies are exaggerating the threat of P2P networks, just as movie studios exaggerated the threat of the VCR.  In fact, the majority of the recent decline in CD sales is due to factors other than online piracy.  In addition, recording companies ignored the new markets that they could reach through online distribution, just as movie studios neglected to see that the VCR would expand their viewer base.  This article thus helps draw two parallels between the VCR and P2P networks, and allows me to apply historical lessons to the current situation facing recording companies.  

This source is a summary of different studies and papers regarding the VCR’s impact on consumers and media consumption. I will focus on the paper by Lin, 1995. Lin views the VCR in terms of the emerging “home entertainment culture.” The VCR has altered the dynamic between consumers and other types of media because VCRs expanded the possible forms of media use and consumption. These new uses have redefined the “home entertainment culture,” meaning video viewing and the VCR’s capabilities have become substitutes for other “leisurely family activities.” As a result of these new forms of use and increased diversity of content, the VCR causes higher levels of user satisfaction. Specifically the argument is made that VCR users are likely to be more satisfied with their television viewing experience because of their ability to time shift. The other important point that Lin makes is that VCR users represent a different socio-economic segment that normal “heavy television” users.

Importance for thesis:

This source helps me in making the claim that media companies were short sighted in initially fighting the VCR.  There were two benefits from the VCR that media companies overlooked.  First, the VCR resulted in higher user satisfaction, which led to increased media consumption by VCR users.  Second, the VCR allowed access to new market segments, which due to demographics, was a desirable result.  However, these benefits were overlooked while media companies instead tried to defend their business models and the status quo.

This article explains the current dominance that Apple exerts on our digital music experience and how it could potentially become the epicenter of media consumption. Currently, it is impossible to download, organize and listen to music without iTunes. Furthermore, iTunes has created a “network effect” whereby its immense popularity spurs demand for other artists and advertisers to be on iTunes as well. iTunes is thus cemented as the face of our interaction with digital music. This same relationship could soon exist with video media if Apple gets access to Disney’s large library of movies and TV shows. One analyst forecasts that the iPod will become a “Tivo and a music player that you can take anywhere.”

This scenario, however, may be further down the road. Hollywood still opposes distributing copyrighted material over the internet. Additionally, being the epicenter of digital media consumption is not “itself a business right now.” In the future, Apple may find a way to turn this large audience into advertising revenue, and thus a legitimate profitable business.

Importance to Thesis:

This article is relevant to my third argument, which is that Apple represents the way media companies should react and adapt to changing technologies.  Apple, through its iTunes and iPod, took advantage of the changing methods of media consumption.  By anticipating that consumers would need both a device to play their music, and an interface that makes dealing with a large library manageable, Apple made itself the name brand associated with digital music.  The dominant position both iTunes and the iPod enjoy is a testament to this foresight.  Furthermore, the position Apple is putting itself in with regards to video media is a repetition of Apple’s ability to see how peer-to-peer technology has changed the competitive landscape for media consumption.  In contrast to media companies who fight to save the status quo, Apple has placed itself where a business does not even exist, but when it does, Apple stands to benefit enormously. 

This article discusses the Disney-Pixar merger and its implications for Apple and the future of online media delivery. As a result of the merger, Steve Jobs solidified himself as one of the most powerful executives in the continuing convergence of media content and online delivery, especially as movie studios now look to extend their digital reach.

Apple stands to benefit from the ability to distribute Disney’s animation studio’s content as well as its array of broadcast networks, namely ABC and ESPN. However, video media has been available online in the form of Pixar short films and more recently since the merger, Disney animated shorts.

As Jobs has already proved the viability of the online delivery of music, video-on-demand makes sense as the next step in rounding out the iTunes platform. By now gaining access to Disney’s video content, it makes developing the video on demand stage easier. Before, Apple was dependent on apprehensive third parties for content, specifically the record labels who doubted the viability of a legal download market. Apple needed large scale support because iTunes would only be successful if there was a large collection of downloadable music. In contrast, the dynamics of video on demand are different in that Apple can start with Disney and add more networks further down the road.

If Apple pursues the video content road, it will likely replicate its revenue model with online music. The majority of Apple’s money is made on sales of iPods, not on sales of legal downloads. Thus, Apple’s strategy was to drive consumer demand for its iPod devices through the access to digital music media. In this vein, Apple will most likely launch a new device, most probably a home entertainment center, to deliver its online video content.

Importance to Thesis:

This article helps support my third argument, which is that Apple has become the example of how media companies should adapt to technological change. By developing the preferred user interface for access to online media content, Apple has positioned itself not only as a technology company, but now as a major player in the media industry. Where 5 years ago Apple wasn’t even involved in media, it now controls the future of content delivery. Thus, by seeing the peer-to-peer phenomenon as an evolution in consumers demanding online media content (both music and video), Apple has put itself in the position to take advantage of the this technological evolution.

In this case, a number of different record companies came together to sue Napster. Their claim was that Napster’s peer-to-peer file sharing service was liable for “contributory and vicarious” copyright infringement. The district court ruled in favor of the recording studios and issued a preliminary injunction against Napster. Napster had to police its servers and remove all copyright infringing material. The district court monitored Napster’s progress and after three months, determined that Napster was not satisfactorily complying with the injunction. Then, the district court required Napster to shut off its peer-to-peer servers until it met certain conditions.

The recording companies argued that Napster should have to search for and block all files that infringed on copyrighted material. They transferred responsibility for locating infringing files to Napster. However, Napster argued that this modification to the injunction was vague with respect to how Napster should monitor its servers.

The court ruled with the district court and affirmed the decision to shut Napster down unless it could abide by the modified injunction.

Importance to Thesis:

This case is important to my thesis because it helps develop my second argument, which is that recording companies today are making the same strategic mistakes that movie studios made in response to the VCR.  The first mistake they are repeating is that they are acting as an industry, not as individual companies.  It is evident from the fact that five separate lawsuits were consolidated into this case that all the recording companies decided to deal with the peer-to-peer threat the same way; namely, litigiously.  The second mistake they are repeating is focusing narrow mindedly on the current perceived threat without considering how this new technology may change the competitive landscape.  By modifying the injunction such that Napster must police itself, the recording studios purposefully made it impossible for Napster to comply, which led to its eventual closure.  This indicates that the recording studios strategy was to eradicate peer-to-peer networks entirely.     

This project is a systematic study of why and how it makes sense for commercial companies and noncommercial institutions active in culture, education, and media to make certain materials widely available for free, and also how free services are finding new (sometimes commercial) ways of becoming sustainable.

Site includes MP3s of lots of the shows. 

This article discusses the way in which Italian-Americans have been portrayed in film within the larger context of minority representation in media.  It begins with a statement regarding the announcement made prior to the first showing on television of the first two Godfather films.  The announcement essentially claimed that no particular ethnicity was being depicted despite the fact that the film was taking place (initially) in Sicily, the family is Sicilian, they all have Italian names, and they were speaking in Italian.

The general representation of Italians was simply that of criminals involved in organized crime through their families.  The disclaimer could have been seen as trying to avoid the kind of media influence the film might have, or simply called attention to it.  In either case, it becomes very clear how extensive the effects media can have on the mind and on the belief systems of people, especially regarding minorities.

Immigrant films began in the early 1900’s often focused around the symbolic Italian as the minority.  “Colored” minorities were met with a very different representation than the mildly funny representations of white minorities, but eventually this changed, and the representations were not nearly as harmless as they had once been.

The crime genre started to get big around the Great Depression.  Essentially, in their pursuit of the American Dream, Italian-Americans and Chinese Americans came to be the front runners in media representations.

Price explains the relationship between transnational media and the state's sovereignty.

Means available to the state to solve conflicts include force, technology, negotiation and law. 

McChesney’s essay can, in many ways, be read as a call to arms.  His goal is clear—he wants to reveal the true nature of the nation’s largest media conglomerates as being corrupt, insidious, and detrimental to the wellbeing of our democracy in order to provoke popular discontent and significant change within the system.  At times, he makes very powerful arguments.  But, sometimes he sounds too much like one consumed by conspiracy theories.  Namely, whenever something might look bad, he interprets it to not only be as bad as it seems, but most likely worse. While this may often be an accurate interpretation of events, after 75 pages of his essay, it begins to see a bit over determined (he never awknoledges that it could be otherwise; he mentions no flaws in his argument or examples of the existence of conglomerates benefiting the consumer, as Baker readily will do).  Nevertheless, McChesney does hit on some very important ideas regarding the media’s integral role in keep our democracy healthy, and the fact that for many people it is not just a question of entertainment.  Ideally, McChesney wants to see the media cease to be an industry like any other.  After all, a TV is not just a toaster that projects a picture.  The essay is well written and a pleasure to read, even if the rhetoric can get a bit tiring.

Baker takes certain ideas touched upon in Bagdikian’s book, The (New) Media Monopoly and analyses them in much greater depth (Bagdikian has published many versions of his book, the first of which appeared when there were 50 major players in the media business… there are now only 5). He uses economic analysis to determine the efficiency of the current system (or lack thereof), and makes various policy arguments for remedying the current problem within our press. The structure is as follows: he illustrates the problem, proves it economically, introduces a policy proposal, compares it to programs implemented around the world, and then discusses the constitutionality of going forward with his recommendations.

Implicit throughout his book is that the media serves a distinct role in society and that given the current influence that advertisers can exercise, they prevent the media from fulfilling the needs of a democratic society. This idea is developed in greater depth in his book Media Markets and Democracy where he analyses a democratic society’s requirements of its press according to 4 different theories of democracy. He values diversity and that the media should work harder to meet the desires of its readers through content rather than from its advertisers by delivering the right readers.

Another key point of Baker’s argument is that advertising disproportionately hurts the poor. He points to the example of an English newspaper that had larger circulation than the other major newspapers combined, but not withstanding this fact, because the newspaper was read by people without a substantial disposable income, there were few (if any) advertisers who would subsidize the paper. Thus, the paper had to be profitable with only subscription revenues, and it eventually failed. Baker gives the case study and then explains why this is so on theoretical grounds and that this phenomenon most likely occurs rather often—advertisers seek a wealthy audience, and thus media products are disproportionately catered to their tastes, in terms of political leanings, interest pieces, and other editorial content.

This article discusses the way in which Italian-Americans have been portrayed in film within the larger context of minority representation in media.  It begins with a statement regarding the announcement made prior to the first showing on television of the first two Godfather films.  The announcement essentially claimed that no particular ethnicity was being depicted despite the fact that the film was taking place (initially) in Sicily, the family is Sicilian, they all have Italian names, and they were speaking in Italian.

The general representation of Italians was simply that of criminals involved in organized crime through their families.  The disclaimer could have been seen as trying to avoid the kind of media influence the film might have, or simply called attention to it.  In either case, it becomes very clear how extensive the effects media can have on the mind and on the belief systems of people, especially regarding minorities.

Immigrant films began in the early 1900’s often focused around the symbolic Italian as the minority.  “Colored” minorities were met with a very different representation than the mildly funny representations of white minorities, but eventually this changed, and the representations were not nearly as harmless as they had once been.

The crime genre started to get big around the Great Depression.  Essentially, in their pursuit of the American Dream, Italian-Americans and Chinese Americans came to be the front runners in media representations.